Bushido

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Biography

, meaning "Way of the Warrior-Knight", is a Japanese word for the way of the samurai life, loosely analogous to the concept of chivalry . It originates from the samurai moral code and stresses frugality , loyalty , martial arts mastery, and honor unto death . Born from Neo- Confucianism during times of peace in Tokugawa Japan and following Confucius|Confucian texts, Bushido was also influenced by Shinto and Buddhism , allowing the violent existence of the samurai to be tempered by wisdom and serenity. Bushido developed between the 9th and 20th centuries and numerous translated documents dating from the 12th to 16th centuries demonstrate its wide influence across the whole of Japan ,Wilson, 1982 although some scholars have noted "the term bushido itself is rarely attested in premodern literature.""The Zen of Japanese Nationalism," by Robert H. Shart, in Curators of the Buddha , edited by Donald Lopez, pg 111Under the Tokugawa Shogunate , aspects of bushido became formalized into Japanese Feudal Law.

According to the Japanese dictionary Nihon kokugo daijiten|Shogakukan Kokugo Daijiten , "Bushido is defined as a unique philosophy ( ronri ) that spread through the warrior class from the Muromachi ( chusei ) period."

The word was first used in Japan during the 17th centuryIkegami, Eiko, The Taming of the Samurai, Harvard University Press, 1995. p. 278. It came into common usage in Japan and the West after the 1899 publication of Nitobe Inazo 's Bushido: The Soul of Japan .Friday, Karl F. "Bushido or Bull? A Medieval Historian's Perspective on the Imperial Army and the Japanese Warrior Tradition" The History Teacher, Vol. 27, No. 3 (May, 1994), pp. 340

In Bushido (1899), Inazo wrote:

:...Bushido, then, is the code of moral principles which the samurai were required or instructed to observe.... More frequently it is a code unuttered and unwritten.... It was an organic growth of decades and centuries of military career.

Nitobe was not the first person to document Japanese chivalry in this way. In his text Feudal and Modern Japan (1896), historian Arthur May Knapp wrote:

:The samurai of thirty years ago had behind him a thousand years of training in the law of honor, obedience, duty, and self-sacrifice.... It was not needed to create or establish them. As a child he had but to be instructed, as indeed he was from his earliest years, in the etiquette of self-immolation . The fine instinct of honor demanding it was in the very blood....

Historical development

Early history to 12th century

This early concept is further found in the Shoku Nihongi , an early history of Japan written in the year 797. The chapter covering the year 721 is notable for an early use of the term and a reference to the educated warrior-poet ideal. The Chinese term bushi had entered the Japanese vocabulary with the general introduction of Chinese literature, supplementing the indigenous terms tsuwamono and mononofu . It is also the useage for public placement exams.

An early reference to saburau & mdash; a verb meaning to wait upon or accompany a person of high rank & mdash; appears in Kokin Wakashu , the first imperial anthology of poems, (early 10th century). By the end of the 12th century, saburai ("retainer") had become largely synonymous with bushi , and closely associated with the middle and upper echelons of the warrior class.

Although many of the early literary works of Japan contain the image of the warrior, the term "bushido" does not appear in early texts like the Kojiki . Warrior ideals and conduct may be illustrated, but the term did not appear in text until the Sengoku period , towards the end of the Muromachi era (1336–1573)."The Zen of Japanese Nationalism," by Robert H. Sharf, in Curators of the Buddha , edited by Donald Lopez, pg 111

13th to 16th centuries

From the literature of the 13th to 16th centuries, there exists an abundance of references to the ideals of Bushido. Carl Steenstrup noted that 13th and 14th century writings ( gunki monogatari ) "portrayed the bushi in their natural element, war, eulogizing such virtues as reckless bravery, fierce family pride, and selfless, at times senseless devotion of master and man."

Compiled in 1371, the Heike Monogatari chronicles the struggle between the Minamoto and Taira clans for control of Japan at the end of the 12th century—a conflict known as the Gempei War . Clearly depicted throughout the Heike Monogatari is the ideal of the cultivated warrior. The warriors in the Heike Monogatari served as models for the educated warriors of later generations, and the ideals depicted by them were not assumed to be beyond reach. Rather, these ideals were vigorously pursued in the upper echelons of warrior society and recommended as the proper form of the Japanese man of arms. By the time of Imagawa Ryoshun's "Regulations" at the beginning of the 15th century, the Bushido ideal was fairly clear, and the term itself came into widespread use.

Other examples of the evolution in the Bushido literature of the 13th to 16th centuries included:

s:Hojo shigetoki|The Message Of Master Gokurakuji - Hojo Shigetoki (1198–1261)

The Chikubasho - Shiba Yoshimasa (1350–1410)

s:Imagawa Ryoshun|The Regulations Of Imagawa Ryoshun - Imagawa Sadayo (1325–1420)

The Seventeen Articles Of Asakura Toshikage - Asakura Toshikage (1428–1481)

The Twenty-One Precepts Of Hojo Soun - Hojo Nagauji (1432–1519)

The Recorded Words Of Asakura Soteki - Asakura Norikage (1474–1555)

The Iwamizudera Monogatari - Takeda Shingen (1521–1573)

Opinions In Ninety-Nine Articles - Takeda Nobushige (1525–1561)

Lord Nabeshima's Wall Inscriptions - Nabeshima Naoshige (1538–1618)

- Torii Mototada (1539–1600)

The Precepts of Kato Kiyomasa - Kato Kiyomasa (1562–1611)

Notes On Regulations - Kuroda Nagamasa (1568–1623)

The sayings of Sengoku period|Sengoku-period retainers and warlords such as Kato Kiyomasa and Nabeshima Naoshige were generally recorded or passed down to posterity around the turn of the 16th century when Japan had entered a period of relative peace. In a handbook addressed to "all samurai, regardless of rank," Kato states:

:"If a man does not investigate into the matter of Bushido daily, it will be difficult for him to die a brave and manly death. Thus, it is essential to engrave this business of the warrior into one's mind well."

Kato was a ferocious warrior who banned even recitation of poetry, stating:

:"One should put forth great effort in matters of learning. One should read books concerning military matters, and direct his attention exclusively to the virtues of loyalty and filial piety....Having been born into the house of a warrior, one's intentions should be to grasp the long and the short swords and to die."William Scott Wilson, Ideals of the Samurai: Writings of Japanese Warriors ( Kodansha , 1982) ISBN 0-89750-081-4

Naoshige says similarly, that it is shameful for any man to die without having risked his life in battle, regardless of rank, and that "Bushido is in being crazy to die. Fifty or more could not kill one such a man." However, Naoshige also suggests that "everyone should personally know exertion as it is known in the lower classes."

17th to 19th centuries

Japan enjoyed a period of relative peace during the Sakoku period from 1600 to the mid-19th century, also called the "Pax Tokugawa era|Tokugawa ". During this period, the samurai class played a central role in the policing and administration of the country under the Tokugawa shogunate . The bushido literature of this time contains much thought relevant to a warrior class seeking more general application of martial principles and experience in peacetime, as well as reflection on the land's long history of war. The literature of this time includes:

The Last Statement of Torii Mototada (1539–1600)

Kuroda Nagamasa (1568–1623)

Nabeshima Naoshige (1538–1618)

The Book of Five Rings ( Go Rin No Sho ) by Miyamoto Musashi (1584–1645)

Budoshoshinshu by Taira Shigesuke, Daidoji Yuzan (1639–1730)

Hagakure as related by Yamamoto Tsunetomo to Tsuramoto Tashiro .

The Hagakure contains many of the sayings of Sengoku period|Sengoku-period retainer Nabeshima Naoshige (1537–1619) regarding Bushido related philosophy early in the 18th century by Yamamoto Tsunetomo (1659–1719), a former retainer (medieval)|retainer to Naoshige's grandson, Nabeshima Mitsushige . The Hagakure was compiled in the early 18th century, but was kept as a kind of "secret teaching" of the Nabeshima clan until was the end of the Tokugawa era (1867)."The Samurai Series: The Book of Five Rings, Hagakure -The Way of the Samurai & Bushido - The Soul of Japan" ELPN Press (November, 2006) ISBN 1-934255-01-7 His saying "I have found the way of the warrior is death" was a summation of the willingness to sacrifice that bushido codified.Meirion and Susie Harries, Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army p 7 ISBN 0-394-56935-0

Tokugawa-era ronin scholar and strategist Yamaga Soko (1622–1685) wrote extensively on matters relating to bushido, bukyo (a "warrior's creed"), and a more general shido, a "way of gentlemen" intended for application to all stations of society. Soko attempts to codify a kind of "universal bushido" with a special emphasis on "pure" Confucian values, (rejecting the mystical influences of Tao and Buddhism in Neo-Confucian orthodoxy), while at the same time calling for recognition of the singular and divine nature of Japan and Japanese culture. These radical concepts — including ultimate devotion to the Emperor, regardless of rank or clan — put him at odds with the reigning shogunate. He was exiled to the Ako domain, (the future setting of the 47 Ronin|47 Ronin incident), and his works were not widely read until the rise of nationalism in the early 20th century.

The aging Tsunetomo's interpretation of bushido is perhaps more illustrative of the philosophy refined by his unique station and experience, at once dutiful and defiant, ultimately incompatible with the mores and laws of an emerging civil society. Of the 47 Ronin—to this day, generally regarded as exemplars of bushido — Tsunetomo felt they were remiss in hatching such a wily, delayed plot for revenge, and had been over-concerned with the success of their undertaking. Instead, Tsunetomo felt true samurai should act without hesitation to fulfill their duties, without regard for success or failure.

This romantic sentiment is of course expressed by warriors down through history, though it may run counter to the art of war itself. This ambivalence is found in the heart of bushido, and perhaps all such " warrior code s". Some combination of traditional bushido's organic contradictions and more "universal" or "progressive" formulations, (like those of Yamaga Soko), would inform Japan's disastrous military ambitions in the 20th century.

19th and 20th centuries

Recent scholarship in both Japan and abroad has focused on differences between the samurai class and the bushido theories that developed in modern Japan. Bushido in the prewar period was often emperor-centered and placed much greater value on the virtues of loyalty and self-sacrifice than did many Tokugawa-era interpretations.Eiko Ikegami. The Taming of the Samurai: Honorific Individualism and the Making of Modern Japan. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995. Bushido was used as a propaganda tool by the government and military, who doctored it to suit their needs.Karl Friday. ''Bushido or Bull? A Medieval Historian's Perspective on the Imperial Army and the Japanese Warrior Tradition. The History Teacher, Volume 27, Number 3, May 1994, pages 339-349. Scholars of Japanese history agree that the bushido that spread throughout modern Japan was not simply a continuation of earlier traditions.

More recently, it has been argued that modern bushido discourse originated in the 1880s as a response to foreign stimuli, such as the English concept of "gentlemanship," by Japanese with considerable exposure to Western culture. Nitobe Inazo's bushido interpretations followed a similar trajectory, although he was following earlier trends. This relatively pacifistic bushido was then hijacked and adapted by militarists and the government from the early 1900s onward as nationalism increased around the time of the Russo-Japanese War.Oleg Benesch. "Bushido : the creation of a martial ethic in late Meiji Japan." PhD dissertation completed at the University of British Columbia, 2011.

The junshi suicide of General Nogi Maresuke and his wife on the death of Emperor Meiji occasioned both praise, as an example to the decaying morals of Japan, and criticism, explicitly declaring that the spirit of bushido thus exemplified should not be revived. Herbert P. Bix , Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan p 42-3 ISBN 0-06-019314-X

During pre-World War II and World War II Showa period|Showa Japan , bushido was pressed into use for militarism,"" Japanese propaganda during World War II#Bushido|to present war as purifying, and death a duty .David Powers, "" This was presented as revitalizing traditional values and "transcending the modern." John W. Dower , War Without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War p1 ISBN 0-394-50030-X Bushido would provide a spiritual shield to let soldiers fight to the end. Richard Overy , Why the Allies Won p 6 ISBN 0-393-03925-0 As the war turned, the spirit of bushido was invoked to urge that all depended on the firm and united soul of the nation. Edwin P. Hoyt , ''Japan's War , p 334 ISBN 0-07-030612-5 When the Battle of Attu was lost, attempts were made to make the more than two thousand Japanese deaths an inspirational epic for the fighting spirit of the nation. John Toland (author)|John Toland , The Rising Sun : The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945 p 444 Random House New York 1970 Arguments that the plans for the Battle of Leyte Gulf , involving all Japanese ships, would expose Japan to serious danger if they failed, were countered with the plea that the Navy be permitted to "bloom as flowers of death."John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945 p 539 Random House New York 1970 The first proposals of organized suicide attacks met resistance because while bushido called for a warrior to be always aware of death, but not to view it as the sole end, but the desperate straits brought about acceptance.Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War , p 356 ISBN 0-07-030612-5 Such attacks were acclaimed as the true spirit of bushido .Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War , p 360 ISBN 0-07-030612-5

Denials of mistreatment of prisoners of war declared that they were being well-treated by virtue of bushido generosity.Edwin P. Hoyt, ''Japan's War , p 256 ISBN 0-07-030612-5 Broadcast interviews with prisoners were also described as being not propaganda but out of sympathy with the enemy, such sympathy as only bushido could inspire.Edwin P. Hoyt, Japan's War , p 257 ISBN 0-07-030612-5

Tenets

Bushido expanded and formalized the earlier code of the samurai, and stressed frugality, loyalty, mastery of martial arts , and honor to the death. Under the bushido ideal, if a samurai failed to uphold his honor he could only regain it by performing seppuku (ritual suicide ).

In an excerpt from his book Samurai: The World of the Warrior , historian Stephen Turnbull (historian)|Stephen Turnbull describes the role of seppuku in feudal Japan:

In the world of the warrior, seppuku was a deed of bravery that was admirable in a samurai who knew he was defeated, disgraced, or mortally wounded. It meant that he could end his days with his transgressions wiped away and with his reputation not merely intact but actually enhanced. The cutting of the abdomen released the samurai’s spirit in the most dramatic fashion, but it was an extremely painful and unpleasant way to die, and sometimes the samurai who was performing the act asked a loyal comrade to cut off his head at the moment of agony.

Bushido was widely practiced, varying little over time, and across the geographic and socio-economic backgrounds of the samurai , who at one time represented up to 10% of the Japanese population.Cleary, Thomas Training the Samurai Mind: A Bushido Sourcebook Shambhala (May, 2008) ISBN 1-59030-572-8 The first Meiji era census at the end of the 19th century counted 1,282,000 members of the "high samurai", allowed to ride a horse, and 492,000 members of the "low samurai", allowed to wear two swords but not to ride a horse, in a country of about 25 million.Mikiso Hane Modern Japan: A Historical Survey, Third Edition Westview Press (January, 2001) ISBN 0-8133-3756-9

Bushido includes compassion for those of lower station, and for the preservation of one's name. Early bushido literature further enforces the requirement to conduct oneself with calmness, fairness, justice , and propriety. The relationship between learning and the way of the warrior is clearly articulated, one being a natural partner to the other.

Other parts of the bushido philosophy cover methods of raising children, appearance, and grooming, but all of this may be seen as part of one's constant preparation for death — to die a good death with one's honor intact, the ultimate aim in a life lived according to bushido. Indeed, a "good death" is its own reward, and by no means assurance of "future rewards" in the afterlife . Notable samurai, though certainly not all (e.g. Amakusa Shiro), have throughout history held such aims or beliefs in disdain, or expressed the awareness that their station — as it involves killing — precludes such reward, especially in Buddhism . On the contrary, the soul of a noble warrior suffering in hell or as a lingering spirit is a common motif in Japanese art and literature. Bushido, while exhibiting the influence of Taoism|Dao through Zen Buddhism , is a philosophy in wikt:contradistinction|contradistinction to religious belief, with a deep commitment to propriety in this world for propriety's sake.

Seven virtues of Bushido

The Bushido code is typified by seven virtues:

Associated virtues

Modern translations

Modern Western translation of documents related to Bushido began in the 1970s with Carl Steenstrup , who performed research into the ethical codes of famous Samurai clans including Hojo Soun and Imagawa Sadayo .

Primary research into Bushido was later conducted by William Scott Wilson in his 1982 text Ideals of the Samurai: Writings of Japanese Warriors . The writings span hundreds of years, family lineage, geography, social class and writing style — yet share a common set of values. Wilson's work also examined the earliest Japanese writings in the 8th century: the Kojiki , Shoku Nihongi , the Kokin Wakashu , Konjaku Monogatari , and the Heike Monogatari , as well as the Chinese Classics (the Analects , the Great Learning , the Doctrine of the Mean , and the Mencius ).

In May 2008, Thomas Cleary translated a collection of 22 writings on Bushido "by warriors, scholars, political advisers, and educators". The comprehensive collection provides a historically rich view of samurai life and philosophy. The book, Training the Samurai Mind: A Bushido Sourcebook, gives an insider's view of the samurai world: "the moral and psychological development of the warrior, the ethical standards they were meant to uphold, their training in both martial arts and strategy, and the enormous role that the traditions of Shintoism , Buddhism , Confucianism , and Taoism had in influencing samurai ideals." The translations, in 22 chapters, span nearly 500 years from the 14th to the 19th centuries.

Major figures associated with Bushido

Asano Naganori

Imagawa Ryoshun

Kato Kiyomasa

Morihei Ueshiba

Ogami Itto

Sakanoue no Tamuramaro

Tadakatsu Honda

Tokugawa Ieyasu

Torii Mototada

Yamaga Soko

Yamamoto Tsunetomo

Yamaoka Tesshu

Copyright Citations

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