Carta Magna

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Magna Carta , also called Magna Carta Libertatum , is an Kingdom of England|English charter , originally issued in the year 1215 and reissued later in the 13th century in modified versions. The later versions excluded the most direct challenges to the monarch's authority that had been present in the 1215 charter. The charter first passed into law in 1225; the 1297 version, with the long title (originally in Latin) The Great Charter of the Liberties of England, and of the Liberties of the Forest , still remains on the statute books of England and Wales .

The 1215 charter required King John of England to proclaim certain liberties, and accept that his will was not arbitrary , for example by explicitly accepting that no "freeman" (in the sense of non- serf ) could be punished except through the law of the land , a right which is still in existence today.

Magna Carta was the first document forced onto an English King by a group of his subjects, the English feudal barony|feudal barons , in an attempt to limit his powers by law and protect their privileges. It was preceded and directly influenced by the Charter of Liberties in 1100, in which King Henry I of England|Henry I had specified particular areas wherein his powers would be limited.

Despite its recognised importance, by the second half of the 19th century nearly all of its clauses had been repealed in their original form. Three clauses remain part of the law of England and Wales , however, and it is generally considered part of the uncodified constitution . Lord Denning described it as "the greatest constitutional document of all times – the foundation of the freedom of the individual against the arbitrary authority of the despot".Danny Danziger & John Gillingham, "1215: The Year of Magna Carta"(2004 paperback edition) p278 In a 2005 speech, Lord Woolf described it as "first of a series of instruments that now are recognised as having a special constitutional status", the others being the Habeas Corpus Act 1679|Habeas Corpus Act (1679) , the Petition of Right|Petition of Right (1628) , the Bill of Rights 1689|Bill of Rights (1689) , and the Act of Settlement 1701|Act of Settlement (1701) .

The charter was an important part of the extensive historical process that led to the rule of constitutional law in the English speaking world , and it was Magna Carta (rather than other early concessions by the monarch) which survived to become a "sacred text".Holt, J.C. Magna Carta (1965) p21 In practice, Magna Carta in the medieval period did not in general limit the power of kings, but by the time of the English Civil War it had become an important symbol for those who wished to show that the King was bound by the law. It influenced the early settlers in New England Clanchy, M.T. Early Medieval England Folio Society(1997)p139 and inspired later constitutional documents, including the United States Constitution .

The Great Charter of 1215

Rebellion and creation of the document

In 1215 some of the most important barons engaged in open rebellion against their King. Such rebellions were not particularly unusual in this period. Every king since William the Conqueror had faced rebellions. However, in every previous case there had been an obvious alternative monarch around whom the rebellion could rally. In 1215, however, John had no obvious replacement. Arthur of Brittany would have been a possibility, if he had not disappeared (widely believed to have been murdered on the orders of John). The next closest possible alternative was Louis VIII the Lion|Prince Louis of France, but as the husband of Henry II's granddaughter, his claim was tenuous, and the English had been at war with the French for thirty years. Instead of a claimant to the throne, the barons decided to base their rebellion around John's oppressive government. In January 1215, the barons made an oath that they would "stand fast for the liberty of the church and the realm", and they demanded that King John confirm the Charter of Liberties , from what they viewed as a golden age.Danziger & Gillingham (2006) pp.256–258

John prevaricated. During negotiations between January and June 1215, a document was produced, which historians have termed 'The Unknown Charter of Liberties',Poole, A.L. From Domesday Book to Magna Carta, 1087–1216 Oxford University Press 2nd edition (1963) p471-472 seven of the articles of which would later appear in the 'Articles of the Barons' and the Runnymede Charter.Holt, J.C. The Northerners: A Study in the Reign of King John Oxford University Press New edition (1992) p115 In May, King John offered to submit issues to a committee of arbitration with Pope Innocent III as the supreme arbiter,Holt, J.C. The Northerners: A Study in the Reign of King John Oxford University Press New edition (1992) p112 but the barons continued in their defiance. With the support of Prince Louis the French Heir and of King Alexander II of Scotland|Alexander II of the Scots, they entered London in force on 10 June 1215,Within this article dates before 14 September 1752 are in the Julian calendar, later dates are in the Gregorian calendar. with the city showing its sympathy with their cause by opening its gates to them. They, and many of the moderates not in overt rebellion, forced King John to agree to a document later known as the 'Articles of the Barons', to which his Great Seal of the Realm|Great Seal was attached in the meadow at Runnymede on 15 June 1215. In return, the barons renewed their oaths of fealty to King John on 19 June 1215.

The contemporary, but unreliableHolt, J.C. The Northerners: A Study in the Reign of King John Oxford University Press New edition (1992) p107 English historians in the Middle Ages|chronicler , Roger of Wendover , recorded the events in his Flores Historiarum . A formal document to record the agreement was created by the royal Lord Chancellor|chancery on 15 July: this was the original Magna Carta, though it was not known by that name at the time. An unknown number of copies of it were sent out to officials, such as royal sheriff s and bishops.

Clause 61

The 1215 document contained a large section that is now called clause 61 (the original document was not actually divided into clauses). This section established a committee of 25 barons who could at any time meet and overrule the will of the King if he defied the provisions of the Charter, seizing his castles and possessions if it was considered necessary. This was based on a medieval legal practice known as distraint , but it was the first time it had been applied to a monarch.

Distrust between the two sides was overwhelming. What the barons really sought was the overthrow of the King; the demand for a charter was a "mere subterfuge".Poole, A.L. From Domesday Book to Magna Carta, 1087–1216 Oxford University Press 2nd edition (1963) p479 Clause 61 was a serious challenge to John's authority as a ruling monarch. He renounced it as soon as the barons left London; Pope Innocent III also annulled the "shameful and demeaning agreement, forced upon the King by violence and fear." He rejected any call for restraints on the King, saying it impaired John's dignity. He saw it as an affront to the Church's authority over the King and the 'papal territories' of England and Ireland, and he released John from his oath to obey it. The rebels knew that King John could never be restrained by Magna Carta and so they sought a new King.Carpenter, David A. The Minority of Henry III University of California Press (1992) p12

England was plunged into a civil war, known as the First Barons' War . With the failure of Magna Carta to achieve peace or restrain John, the barons reverted to the more traditional type of rebellion by trying to replace the monarch they disliked with an alternative. In a measure of some desperation, despite the tenuousness of his claim and despite the fact that he was French, they offered the crown of England to Louis VIII of France|Prince Louis of France.Danziger & Gillingham (2004) p. 264

As a means of preventing war Magna Carta was a failure, rejected by most of the barons,Crouch, David William Marshal Longman (1996) p114 and was legally valid for no more than three months.Holt, J.C. Magna Carta Cambridge University Press 2nd Edition (1992) p1 It was the death of King John in 1216 which secured the future of Magna Carta.Clanchy, M.T. A History Of England: Early Medieval England Folio Edition (1997) p141

Participant list

Barons , Bishop s and Abbots who were party to Magna Carta., , ,

	Barons – surety for the enforcement of Magna Carta	Bishops – witnessess	Abbots – witnessess
1	William d'Aubigny , Lord of Belvoir Castle	Cardinal of the Holy Roman Church	St Edmunds
2	Roger Bigod , Earl of Norfolk and Earl of Suffolk	Archbishop of Dublin	St Albans
3	Hugh Bigod , Heir to the Earldoms of Earl of Norfolk	William of Sainte-Mère-Église , Bishop of London	Bello
4	Henry de Bohun , Earl of Hereford	Jocelin of Wells , Bishop of Bath and Wells	St Augustine's in Canterbury
5	Richard de Clare , Earl of Hertford	Peter des Roches , Bishop of Winchester	Evesham
6	Gilbert de Clare, 5th Earl of Hertford>Gilbert de Clare , heir to the earldom of Hertford	Hugh de Wells , Bishop of Lincoln	Westminster
7	John FitzRobert , Lord of Warkworth Castle	Herbert Poore (aka "Robert"), Bishop of Salisbury	the Abbot of Peterborough
8	Robert Fitzwalter , Lord of Dunmow Castle	Benedict of Sausetun , Bishop of Rochester	Reading
9	William de Fortibus , Earl of Albemarle	Walter de Gray , Bishop of Worcester	Abingdon
10	Mayor of the City of London	Geoffrey de Burgo , Bishop of Ely	the Abbot of Malmesbury Abbey
11	Sheriff of Norfolk and Suffolk>Sheriff of Norfolk and Suffolk	Hugh de Mapenor , Bishop of Hereford	Winchcomb
12	John de Lacy , Lord of Pontefract Castle	Richard Poore , Bishop of Chichester (brother of Herbert/ Robert above)	Hyde Abbey>Hyde
13	William de Lanvallei , Lord of Standway Castle		Chertsey
14	William Malet , Sheriff of Somerset and Dorset		Sherborne
15	Geoffrey de Mandeville , Earl of Essex and Earl of Gloucester		Cerne
16	William Marshall Jr, heir to the earldom of Pembroke		Abbotebir
17	Roger de Montbegon , Lord of Hornby Castle, Lancashire		Middleton
18	Richard de Montfichet , Baron		Selby
19	William de Mowbray , Lord of Axholme Castle		Cirencester
20	Richard de Percy , Baron		Hartstary
21	Saire/ Saher de Quincy , Earl of Winchester
22	Robert de Roos , Lord of Hamlake Castle
23	Geoffrey de Saye , Baron
24	Robert de Vere , heir to the Earl of Oxford
25	Eustace de Vesci , Lord of Alnwick Castle

Others

Llywelyn the Great . Also the other Welsh Princes

Pandulf Masca|Master Pandulff , subdeacon and member of the Papal Household

Brother Aymeric, Master of the Knights Templar in England

Alexander II of Scotland

Magna Carta of Chester

The Runnymede Charter of Liberties did not apply to Chester , which at the time was a Earl of Chester|separate feudal domain . Ranulf de Blondeville, 6th Earl of Chester|Earl Ranulf granted his own Magna Carta.Hewitt, H.J. Mediaeval Cheshire Manchester University Press(1929) p9 Some of its articles were similar to the Runnymede Charter.Holt, J.C. Magna Carta Cambridge University Press 2nd Edition (1992) pp379-380

The Great Charter 1216–1369

The Charter 1216

King John's nine-year-old son Henry III of England|Henry was crowned King of England in Gloucester Abbey , though much of England lay under the usurper Prince Louis. The papal legate Guala Bicchieri declared the struggle against Louis and the Barons a holy war,Clanchy, M.T. A History Of England: Early Medieval England Folio Edition (1997) p145 and the loyalists led by William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke|William Marshal rallied around the new King. Earl Ranulf of Chester left the Regency to Marshall. Marshall and Guala issued a Charter of Liberties, based on the Runnymede Charter, in the King's name on 12 November 1216 as a Royal concession, in an attempt to undermine the rebels.Powicke, Sir Maurice The Thirteenth Century 1216–1307 Oxford University Press 2nd edition (1962) p5

The Charter differed from that of 1215 in only having 42 as compared to 61 clauses; most notably the infamous article 61 of the Runnymede Charter was removed. The Charter was also issued separately for Great Charter of Ireland|Ireland .

The Charters 1217: the origins of the name Magna Carta

Following the end of the First Barons War and the 1217 Treaty of Lambeth|Treaty of Lambeth , the Charter of Liberties ( carta libertatum ) was issued again in the manner of 1216, again amended and issued separately for Ireland. The 42 clauses of the 1216 issue were expanded to 47.

Significantly, a fragment of the original charter would be expanded with new material to form a complementary charter, the Charter of the Forest ; the two Charters would thereafter be linked. Magna carta libertatum was then used by scribes to differentiate the larger and more important charter of common liberties from the Forest Charter.White, A.B. The Name Magna Carta in The English Historical Review (1915) pp472-475 and Note on the Name Magna Carta in The English Historical Review (1917) pp554-555 The term was used retrospectively to describe the previous Charters, with what had previously been described as carta libertatum becoming known simply as Magna Carta .

The Great Charter 1225

Having reached the age of majority , King Henry III was called upon to confirm the Charters. Henry reissued Magna Carta in a shorter version with only 37 articles, as a concession of liberties in return for a fifteenth part of moveable goods. This was the first version of the Charter to enter English law.Clanchy, M.T. A History Of England: Early Medieval England Folio Edition (1997) pp141-142 The Charter of Liberties included a new statement that the Charter had been issued spontaneously and of the King's own free will. In 1227, Henry III declared all future charters had to be issued under his own seal and state under Quo warranto|what warrant they were claimed; this proclamation questioned the validity of all previous acts done in his name or his predecessors.Clanchy, M.T. A History Of England: Early Medieval England Folio Edition (1997) p147 It was not until 1237, and the carta parva , that both of the 1225 Charters were confirmed and granted in perpetuity.Holt, J.C. Magna Carta Cambridge University Press 2nd Edition (1992) p394

The Great Charter 1297: Statute

Edward I of England reissued the Charters of 1225 in 1297 in return for a new tax.Prestwich, Michael Edward I Yale (1997) p427 "Constitutionally, the Magna Carta of Edward I is the most important". Halsbury Statutes Volume 10 4th edition (2007) p6 This version remains in Statute today (albeit with most articles now repealed—see below).

Confirmatio Cartarum and Articuli super Cartas

The Confirmatio Cartarum (Confirmation of Charters) was issued by Edward I in 1297, and was similar to the parva carta issued by Henry III in 1237. In the Confirmation, Edward reaffirmed Magna Carta and the Forest Charter as a concession for tax money. As part of the Remonstrances the nobles sought to add another document the Tallage#England|De Tallagio to the Charters but without success. Michael Prestwich|Prestwich, Michael Edward I Yale (1997) p427 The principle of taxation by consent was reinforced, however the precise manner of that consent was not laid down. Michael Prestwich|Prestwich, Michael Edward I Yale (1997) p434

Pope Clement V annulled the Confirmatio Cartarum in 1305.Menache, Sophia Clement V Cambridge University Press (2002)p253

As part of the reconfirmation of the Charters in 1300 an additional document was granted, the Articuli super Cartas (The Articles upon the Charters). It was composed of 20 articles and sought in part to deal with the problem of enforcing the Charters.Robison, William B. and Fritze, Ronald H. (eds) Historical dictionary of late medieval England, 1272–1485 Greenwood Press (2002) entry on Articuli super Cartas pp34-35 In 1305 Edward I took Clement V's Papal bull annulling the Confirmatio Cartarum to effectively apply to the Articuli super Cartas though it was not specifically mentioned.Prestwich, Michael Edward I University of California Press (1988) pp547-548

The Six Statutes

During the reign of Edward III of England|Edward III six measures were passed between 1331 and 1369 which were later known as the 'Six Statutes'. They sought to clarify certain parts of the Charters. In particular, the third statute, of 1354, redefined clause 29, with 'free man' becoming "no man, of whatever Estates of the realm|estate or condition he may be", and introduced the phrase " due process of law " for 'lawful judgement of his peers or the law of the land'.Turner, Ralph V. Magna Carta Pearson (2003) p123

Later History of the Charter

Reconfirmations of the Charter

The impermanence of the Charter required successive generations to petition the King to reconfirm his Charter, and hopefully abide by it. Between the 13th and 15th centuries Magna Carta would have a history of being reconfirmed, 32 times according to Sir Edward Coke , but possibly as many as 45 times.Thompson, Faith Magna Carta – Its Role in the Making of the English Constitution 1300–1629 (1948)pp9-10 The Charter was last confirmed in 1423 by Henry VI of England|Henry VI .

Repeal of articles of the Charter

The repeal of clause 26 in 1829, by the Offences against the Person Act 1828 (9 George IV of the United Kingdom|Geo. 4 c. 31 s. 1), was the first time a clause of Magna Carta was repealed. With the document's perceived inviolability broken, in the next 140 years nearly the whole charter was repealed, leaving just Clauses 1, 9, and 29 still in force after 1969. Most of it was repealed in England and Wales by the Statute Law Revision Act 1863 , and in Ireland by the Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872 .

Magna Carta 1225 Clause	Runnymede Charter Clause	Date Repealed
1	I	extant
2	II	Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872
3	III	Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872
4	IV	Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872
5	V	Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872
6	VI	Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872
7	VII, VIII	Administration of Estates Act 1925 , Administration of Estates Act (Northern Ireland) 1955 and Statute Law (Repeals) Act 1969
8	IX	Statute Law (Repeals) Act 1969
9	XIII	extant
10	XVI	Statute Law Revision Act 1948
11	XVII	Civil Procedure Acts Repeal Act 1879
12	XVIII	Civil Procedure Acts Repeal Act 1879
13		Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872
14	XX, XXI, XXII	Criminal Law Act 1967 and Criminal Law Act (Northern Ireland) 1967
15	XXIII	Statute Law (Repeals) Act 1969
16	XXXXVII	Statute Law (Repeals) Act 1969
17	XXIV	Statute Law Revision Act 1892
18	XXVI	Crown Proceedings Act 1947
19	XXVIII	Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872
20	XIX	Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872
21	XXX, XXXI	Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872
22	XXXII	Statute Law Revision Act 1948
23	XXXIII	Statute Law (Repeals) Act 1969
24	XXXIV	Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872
25	XXXV	Statute Law Revision Act 1948
26	XXXVI	Offences against the Person Act 1828 and Offences against the Person (Ireland) Act 1829
27	XXXVII	Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872
28	XXXVIII	Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872
29	XXXIX,XXXX	extant
30	XXXXI	Statute Law (Repeals) Act 1969
31	XXXXIII	Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872
32		Statute Law Revision Act 1887
33	XXXXVI	Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872
34	LIV	Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872
35		Sheriffs Act 1887
36		Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872
37	LX	Statute Law Revision Act 1863 and Statute Law (Ireland) Revision Act 1872

Content of the Charters

Magna Carta was originally written in Latin. A large part of the Charter at Runnymede was copied, nearly word for word, from the Charter of Liberties of Henry I of England|Henry I , issued when Henry became king in 1100, in which he said he would respect certain rights of the Church and the barons, for example not forcing heirs to purchase their inheritances.

As the Charter went through various issues many of the clauses included in the Runnymede charter were removed. Some clauses would form a supplementary Charter in 1217, the Charter of the Forest .

It is worth emphasising that the 1215 charter was not numbered and was not divided into paragraphs or separate clauses. The numbering system used today was created by Sir William Blackstone in 1759,Turner, Ralph V. Magna Carta Pearson (2003) pp67-68 and therefore should not be used to draw any conclusions regarding the intentions of the original creators of the charter.

Clauses still in force today

The clauses of the 1297 Magna Carta which are still on statute are

Clause 1, the freedom of the English Church.

Clause 9 (clause 13 in the 1215 charter), the "ancient liberties" of the City of London.

Clause 29 (clause 39 in the 1215 charter), a right to due process .

Clauses in Runnymede Charter but not in later Charters

Clauses 10 and 11 related to money lending and Jews in England . Jews were particularly involved in money lending because Christian teachings on usury did not apply to them. Clause 10 said that children would not pay interest on a debt they had inherited while they were under age. Clause 11 said that the widow and children should be provided for before paying an inherited debt. The charter concludes this section with the words "Debts owing to other than Jews shall be dealt with likewise", so it is debatable to what extent the Jews were being singled out by these clauses.

Clauses 12 and 14 state that taxes (in the language of the time, " scutage or aid") can only be levied and assessed by the common counsel of the realm. See Magna Carta#Challenges to the King's power|Challenges to the King's power for more detail.

Clause 15 stated that the King would not grant anyone the right to take an aid (i.e. money) from his free men

Clauses 25 and 26 dealt with debt and taxes

Clause 27 with intestacy .

Clause 42 stated that it was lawful for subjects to leave the kingdom without prejudicing their allegiance (except for outlaws and during war)

Clause 45 said that the King should only appoint as "justices, constables, sheriffs, or bailiffs" those who knew the law and would keep it well. In the United States, the Supreme Court of California interpreted clause 45 in 1974 as establishing a requirement at common law that a defendant faced with the potential of incarceration is entitled to a trial overseen by a legally trained judge. Gordon v. Justice Court , (1974).

Clause 48 stated that all evil customs connected with forests were to be abolished

Clause 49 provided for the return of hostages held by the King. (John held hostages from the families of important nobles he wished to ensure remained loyal, as other English monarchs had before him.)

Clause 50 stated that no member of the Gérard d'Athée|d'Athée family could be a royal officer.

Clause 51 called for all foreign knights and mercenaries to leave the realm.

Clause 52 dealt with restoration of those "disseised" (i.e. those dispossessed of property. See (for example) Assize of novel disseisin )

Clause 53 was similar to 52 but relating to forests

Clause 55 regarded remittance of unjust fines

Clauses 57 concerned restoration of disseised Welshmen

Clauses 58 and 59 provided for the return of Welsh and Scottish hostages

Clauses 61 provided for the application and observation of the Charter by twenty-five of the rebellious barons. See Magna Carta#Challenges to the King's power|Challenges to the King's power for more on clause 61.

Clause 62 pardoned those who had rebelled against the king

Clause 63 said that the charter was binding on King John and his heirs. However this version of the charter was renounced by John, with the support of the Pope. The smaller 1225/1297 charters (which actually became law) contain similar text, stating that the monarch and their heirs would not seek to infringe or damage the liberties in the charter, and that the charter is to be observed "in perpetuity".

Challenges to the King's power

Clauses 12 and 14 of the 1215 charter state that the king will accept the "common counsel of our realm" when levying and assessing an aid or a scutage . Clause 14 goes into detail about how exactly the archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls and greater barons should be consulted. These clauses effectively meant that the monarch had to ask before raising new taxes. The later charters merely said that "Scutage furthermore is to be taken as it used to be", although in practice the convention arose after Magna Carta that English Parliament|Parliament would be consulted by the monarch before raising new taxes.

Clause 61 of the 1215 charter states: "The barons shall choose any twenty-five barons of the realm they wish, who with all their might are to observe, maintain and cause to be observed the peace and liberties which we have granted and confirmed to them by this our present charter". The clause goes on to say that if the king does not keep to the charter, the twenty five barons shall seize "castles, lands and possessions... until, in their judgement, amends have been made". "Anyone in the land" would be permitted by the king to swear an oath to the twenty five to obey them in these matters, and the king was in fact supposed to order people to do so even if they didn't want to swear an oath to the twenty five barons.

The barons were trying to stop John going back on his word after agreeing to the charter, but if those who rebelled against him were able to choose a group who would have the power to seize his castles if they thought it necessary, "then the king had in effect been dethroned". No king would have agreed to this except as a manoeuvre to gain time, and the inclusion of this clause destroyed any chance of the original Magna Carta keeping the peace in the long term.Danziger, Gillingham 2004 p.262

Clause 61 was removed from all later versions of the charter. Forty years later, after another confrontation between king and barons, the Provisions of Oxford forced on the king a council of twenty four members, 12 selected by the crown, 12 by the barons, which would then elect a king's council of fifteen members; this however was also annulled when Henry III of England|Henry III finally won that power struggle.

Clauses in Runnymede Charter and in 1216/1217 Charter but not in 1225/1297 Charter

Clauses 2 to 3 refer to Feudal relief|relief , specifically the regulation of the charging of excessive relief, in effect a form of "succession duty" or "death duty" payable by an heir.

Clauses 4 to 5 refer to the duties of Ward (law)|wardship , specifically forbidding the practice of the over-exploitation of a ward's property by his warder (or guardian).

Clause 6 refers to a warder's power over the marriage of his ward. He was forbidden from forcing a marriage to a partner of lower social standing (possibly therefore to one such who may have been willing to pay a higher price for it).

Clause 7 refers to the rights of a widow to receive promptly her dowry and inheritance.

Clause 8 stated that a widow could not be compelled to marry.

Clause 9 stated that a debtor should not have his lands seized as long as he had other means to pay the debt.

Clause 16 was regarding a knight's fee .

Clauses 17 to 19 allowed for a fixed law court, which became the chancellery, and defined the scope and frequency of county assizes.

Clause 44 (1216 only) relating to forest law

Clause 56 (1216 only) relating to disseised Welshmen

Clauses in Runnymede Charter and 1225/1297 Charter but since repealed

All of the remaining parts of the 1215 charter appear substantially unchanged in the 1225/1297 charter which became law and is still on the statute book. All except the three clauses which are still in force today were eventually repealed however, most in the 19th century. Many provisions have no bearing in the world today, since they deal with feudal liberties. Some clauses remained relevant but were replaced by later legislation which gave similar rights. Using the 1215 clause numbers:

Clause 20 stated that fines ("amercements", in the language of the day), should be proportionate to the offence, but even for a serious offence the fine should not be so heavy as to deprive a man of his livelihood. No fines should be imposed except by the oath of honest local men.

Clause 21 stated that earls and barons should only be fined by their peers, i.e. other earls and barons. Until 1948 this meant that members of the House of Lords had the right to a criminal trial in the House of Lords at first instance.

Clause 22 stated that fines should not be influenced by ecclesiastical property in clergy trials.

Clause 23 provided that no town or person should be forced to build a bridge across a river.

Clause 24 stated that crown officials (such as sheriffs) must not try a crime in place of a judge.

Clauses 28 to 32 stated that no royal officer might take any commodity such as grain, wood or transport without payment or consent or force a knight to pay for something the knight could do himself, and that the king must return any lands confiscated from a felon within a year and a day to the felon's feudal lord ("the lords of the fees concerned").

Clause 33 required the removal of all fishing weir|fish weirs .

Clause 34 forbade repossession without a " writ precipe".

Clause 35 set out a list of standard measures

Clause 36 stated that writs for loss of life or limb were to be free

Clause 37 concerns inheritance when a "fee-farm" (fee as in knight's fee ) was involved.

Clause 38 stated that no-one could be put on trial based solely on the unsupported word of an official.

Clause 40 disallowed the selling of justice, or its denial or delay.

Clauses 41 and 42 guaranteed the safety and right of entry and exit of foreign merchants.

Clause 43 gave special provision for tax on reverted estates

Clause 46 provided for the guardianship of monasteries.

Clauses 47 and 48 abolished most of Forest Law (these clauses were split out of the main charter and formed part of a separate charter, the Charter of the Forest ).

Clause 54 said that no man may be imprisoned on the testimony of a woman except on the death of her husband.

Clauses in the 1225/1297 Charter but not in the Runnymede Charter

There are a few clauses which are in the 1225/1297 charter but not in the 1215 charter. These have also since been repealed. Using the 1297 clause numbers:

Clause 13 concerned the Assize of darrein presentment .

Clause 32 said that a free man should not give away or sell so much of his land that he would not be able to meet his feudal obligations to his lord.

Clause 35 concerned the county court , the frankpledge and tithes .

Clause 36 said that it was not permitted to give land to a religious house and then receive it back; in such a case the land would revert to the feudal lord.

Medieval and Tudor period

The judgement of 1387 confirmed the supremacy of the Royal Prerogative in the United Kingdom|Royal Prerogative within the constitution.Turner, Ralph V. Magna Carta Pearson (2003) p127 By the mid 15th century Magna Carta ceased to occupy a central role in English political life. In part this was also due to the rise of an early version of Parliament and to further statutes, some which were based on the principle of Magna Carta. The Charter, however remained a text for scholars of law. The Charter in the statute books was correctly thought to have arisen from the reign of Henry III and was seen as no more special than any other statute and could be amended and removed. It was not seen (as it was later) as an entrenched set of liberties guaranteed for the people against the Government. Rather, it was an ordinary statute, which gave a certain level of liberties, most of which could not be relied on, least of all against the king. Therefore the Charter had little effect on the governance of the early Tudor period.

The Tudor period would see a growing interest in history. Tudor historians would rediscover the Barnwell chronicler who was more favourable to King John than other contemporary texts. John Bale and William Shakespeare|Shakespeare would both write plays on King John. Tudor historians were not inclined to regard rebellion as anything but a crime. Those who supported Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII ’s break with Rome “viewed King John in a positive light as a hero struggling against the papacy, they showed little sympathy for the Great Charter or the rebel barons”.Turner, Ralph V. Magna Carta Pearson (2003) p138

The first printed edition of Magna Carta was probably the Magna Carta cum aliis Antiquis Statutis of 1508 by Richard Pynson .Thompson, Faith Magna Carta – Its Role in the Making of the English Constitution 1300–1629 University of Minnesota Press(1948) p146 George Ferrers would publish the first unabridged English language edition of Magna Carta in 1534, and effectively established the numbering of the Charter into 37 chapters; an abridged English language edition had previously been published by John Rastell in 1527.Thompson, Faith Magna Carta – Its Role in the Making of the English Constitution 1300–1629 University of Minnesota Press(1948) p147-149 By the end of the 16th century editions of the 1215 Charter would also be printed.

The Charter had no real effect until the Elizabethan era (1558–1603). Magna Carta again began to occupy legal minds, and it again began to shape how that government was run, but in a manner entirely different to that of earlier ages. William Lambarde published “what he thought were law codes of the Anglo-Saxon kings and William the conqueror”.Turner, Ralph V. Magna Carta Pearson (2003) p140 Lambarde would begin the process of misinterpreting English history, soon taken up by others, incorrectly dating documents and giving parliament a false antiquity. Francis Bacon would claim that Clause 39 of the 1215 Charter was the basis of the jury system and due process in a trial. Robert Beale (diplomat)|Robert Beale , James Morice , Richard Cosin and the Puritans Thompson, Faith Magna Carta – Its Role in the Making of the English Constitution 1300–1629 University of Minnesota Press(1948) pp216-230 began to misperceive Magna Carta as a ‘statement of liberty’, a 'fundamental law' above all law and government. In 1581 Arthur Hall (politician)|Arthur Hall, MP would be one of the first to suffer under this emerging new ideology, when he correctly questioned the antiquity of the House of CommonsPocock, J.G.A. The Ancient Constitution and the Feudal Law Cambridge University Press reisssue (1987) p154Wright, Herbert G. The Life and Works of Arthur Hall of Grantham, Member of Parliament, Courtier and First Translator of Homer Into English (1919) p72 and was without precedent expelled from Parliament.

Edward Coke's opinions

One of the first respected jurists to write seriously about the great charter was Edward Coke . He was influential in the way Magna Carta was perceived throughout the Tudor and Jacobean era|Stuart periods though his views were challenged during his lifetime by Thomas Egerton, 1st Viscount Brackley|Lord Ellesmere and later in the century by Robert Brady (writer)|Robert Brady . Coke used the 1225 issue of the Charter.

Coke "reinterpreted or misinterpreted" Magna Carta "misconstruing its clauses anachronistically and uncritically".Turner, Ralph V. Magna Carta Longman (2003) 148 He would interpret liberties to be much the same as individual liberty.Holt, J.C. Magna Carta Cambridge University Press 2nd edition (1992) p12 The historian J.C. Holt excused Coke on the grounds that the Charter and its history had itself become 'distorted'.Holt, J.C. Magna Carta Cambridge University Press 2nd edition (1992) pp20-21

Coke would be instrumental in framing the Petition of Right , which would be a substantial supplement to Magna Carta's liberties. During the debates on the matter Coke famously sought to deny the King's sovereign rights with the claim that "Magna Carta is such a fellow, that he will have no 'sovereign'"; he believed the statutes (not the King) were absolute.Turner, Ralph V. Magna Carta Longman (2003) 157

17th and 18th Centuries

Whilst Sir Edward Coke would take the lead in reinterpreting Magna Carta he would soon be joined by others with a similar ideological stance, resulting in the concept of an 'ancient constitution' which entailed belief in fundamental laws supposedly existing since time immemorial and a belief in the antiquity of Parliament.Pocock, J.G.A. The Ancient Constitution and the Feudal Law Cambridge University Press (1987) These beliefs would be used to challenge the constitution as it existed under the Stuart Kings.

John Selden would link habeas corpus to Magna CartaTurner, Ralph V. Magna Carta Pearson (2003) p156 during Darnell's Case . Sir Henry Spelman , who can be largely credited with first formulating a concept of feudalism (which would ironically be later used to attack the idea of an ancient constitution, notably by Robert Brady), sought to place the origins of Common Law in Anglo-Saxon laws .Greenberg, Janelle ''The Radical Face of the Ancient Constitution: St Edward's 'Laws' in Early Modern Political Thought Cambridge University Press (2001) p148 Antiquarians would seek out documents to support the views of their compatriots, such as Robert Bruce Cotton|Sir Robert Cotton , whose collection of manuscripts would later form the basis for the British Library , and who discovered two original copies of King John’s Charter.

The Petition of Right of 1628 sought to add to Magna Carta in the manner of the Articuli super Cartas or the Six Statutes. Charles I of England|Charles I however, did not grant it as law and he was under no legal restriction.Russell, Conrad Unrevolutionary England, 1603–1642 Hambledon Press (1990) p41 The problem as before in history was that the King was not bound by the law as adherents of Magna Carta believed. As before in history armed force would be used, first in 1642–49 and again in 1689.

With the advent of the Commonwealth of England|republic it was questionable whether Magna Carta still applied. John Milton called for “great actions, above the form of law and custom”. Whilst Oliver Cromwell had much disdain for Magna Carta, at one point describing it as "Magna Farta" to a defendant who sought to rely on it, a speech by Harry Woolf, Baron Woolf , Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales , given on 15 June 2005 at Royal Holloway, University of London he agreed to rule with the advice and consent of his council.Woolrych, Austyn in David L. Smith (Editor) Cromwell and the Interregnum: The Essential Readings Wiley-Blackwell (2003) p66

Different radical groups held differing opinions of Magna Carta. The Levellers rejected history and law as presented by their contemporaries, holding instead to an ‘anti-Normanism’ viewpoint.Pocock, J.G.A. The Ancient Constitution and the Feudal Law Cambridge University Press (1987) p127 John Lilburne regarded Magna Carta as being less than the freedoms which supposedly existed under the Anglo-Saxons before being crushed by the Norman yoke . Richard Overton would describe Magna Carta as a “a beggarly thing containing many marks of intolerable bondage”.Kewes, Paulina The uses of history in early modern England University of California Press (2006) 226 Both however saw Magna Carta as a valuable declaration of liberties which could be used against governments they disagreed with. Lilburne said "the ground of my freedom, I build upon the Grand Charter of England", while Overton said that when arrested, he hung on to his copy of Coke on Magna Carta, shouting "murder, murder, murder" as they wrested "the Great Charter of England's Liberties and Freedoms from me".Danziger & Gillingham (2004) pp.281–282 Gerrard Winstanley leader of the more extreme Diggers stated “The best lawes that England hath, were got by our Forefathers importunate petitioning unto the kings that still were their Task-masters; and yet these best laws are yoaks and manicles, tying one sort of people to be slaves to another; Clergy and Gentry have got their freedom, but the common people still are, and have been left servants to work for them.”

The first attempt at a proper Historiography was undertaken by Robert Brady (writer)|Robert Brady Pocock, J.G.A. The Ancient Constitution and the Feudal Law Cambridge University Press (1987) "The Brady Controversy" chapter pp182-228 who refuted the supposed antiquity of parliament and the belief in the immutable continuity of the law, and realised the liberties of the Charter were limited and were effective only because it was the grant of the King; by putting Magna Carta in historical context he questioned its contemporary political relevance.Turner, Ralph V. Magna Carta Pearson (2003) p165 However, Brady’s history would not survive the Glorious Revolution which “marked a setback for the course of English historiography”.Pocock, J.G.A. The Ancient Constitution and the Feudal Law Cambridge University Press (1987) p228

The Glorious Revolution reinforced the century’s ideological interpretations of history, which would later become known as the Whig interpretation of history . Reinforced with Lockean concepts the Whig (British political faction)|Whigs believed England’s constitution to be a Social contract , based on documents such as Magna Carta, the Petition of Right and The Bill of Rights 1689|Bill of Rights .Turner, Ralph V. Magna Carta Pearson (2003) p170 Ideas about the nature of law in general were beginning to change. In 1716 the Septennial Act was passed, which had a number of consequences. Firstly, it showed that Parliament no longer considered its previous statutes unassailable, as this act provided that the parliamentary term was to be seven years, whereas fewer than twenty-five years had passed since the Triennial Act (1694), which provided that a parliamentary term was to be three years. It also greatly extended the powers of Parliament. Under this new constitution Monarchal Absolute monarchy|absolutism was replaced by Parliamentary supremacy . It was quickly realised that Magna Carta stood in the same relation to the King-in-Parliament as it had to the King without Parliament. This supremacy would be challenged by the likes of Granville Sharp . Sharp regarded Magna Carta to be a fundamental part of the constitution, and that it would be treason to repeal any part of it. Sharp also held that the Charter prohibited slavery .Linebaugh, Peter The Magna Carta Manifesto: Liberties and Commons for All University of California Press (2008) p113-114 and p96

Sir William Blackstone published a critical edition of the 1215 Charter in 1759, and gave it the numbering system still used today.

In 1763 an MP, John Wilkes was arrested for writing an inflammatory pamphlet, No. 45, 23 April 1763 ; he cited Magna Carta incessantly. Charles Pratt, 1st Earl Camden#John Wilkes MP|Lord Camden denounced the treatment of Wilkes as a contravention of Magna Carta.

Prophet of a new revolutionary age, Thomas Paine in his Rights of Man would disregard Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights on the grounds they were not a written constitution devised by elected representatives.

The United States of America

When Englishmen left their homeland for the new world, they brought with them charters establishing the colonies. The Massachusetts Bay Company charter for example stated the colonists would "have and enjoy all liberties and immunities of free and natural subjects." The Virginia Company|Virginia Charter of 1606 (which was largely drafted by Sir Edward Coke) stated the colonists would have all "liberties, franchises and immunities" as if they had been born in England. The Massachusetts Body of Liberties contained similarities to clause 29 of Magna Carta, and the Massachusetts General Court in drawing it up viewed Magna Carta as the chief embodiment of English common law.Hazeltine, H.D. The influence of Magna Carta on American Constitutional Development in Malden, Henry Elliot (editor) Magna Carta commemoration essays (1917) p 194 The other colonies would follow their example. In 1638 Province of Maryland|Maryland sought to recognise Magna Carta as part of the law of the province but it was not granted by the King.Hazeltine, H.D. The influence of Magna Carta on American Constitutional Development in Malden, Henry Elliot (editor) Magna Carta commemoration essays (1917) p 195

In 1687 William Penn published The Excellent Privilege of Liberty and Property: being the birth-right of the Free-Born Subjects of England which contained the first copy of Magna Carta printed on American soil. Penn's comments reflected Coke's, indicating a belief that Magna Carta was a fundamental law.Turner, Ralph V. Magna Carta Pearson (2003) p210 The colonists drew on English lawbooks leading them to an anachronistic interpretation of Magna Carta, believing it guaranteed trial by jury and habeas corpus .Turner, Ralph V. Magna Carta Pearson (2003) p 211

The development of Parliamentary sovereignty in the British Isles did not constitutionally affect the Thirteen Colonies , which retained an adherence to English common law , but it would come to directly affect the relationship between Britain and the colonies.Hazeltine, H.D. The influence of Magna Carta on American Constitutional Development in Malden, Henry Elliot (editor) Magna Carta commemoration essays (1917) pp 183–184 When American colonists raised arms against Britain, they were fighting not so much for new freedom, but to preserve liberties and rights, as believed to be enshrined in Magna Carta and as later included in the Bill of Rights. American Revolutionaries would supplement this with ideas of natural right .

In 1787 when the revolutionaries gathered to draft a constitution they built upon the legal system they knew and admired, English common law, and on Lockean philosophy.

The American Constitution is the " supreme law of the land ", recalling the manner in which Magna Carta had come to be regarded as fundamental law. This heritage is quite apparent. In comparing Magna Carta with the Bill of Rights: the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fifth Amendment guarantees: "No person shall be deprived of life, liberty or property without due process of law." In addition, the United States Constitution included a similar writ in the Suspension Clause , article 1, section 9: "The privilege of the writ habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may require it." Each of these proclaim no man may be imprisoned or detained without proof that they did wrong. The Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution states that, "The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people." The framers of the United States Constitution wished to ensure that rights they already held, such as those provided by Magna Carta, were not lost unless explicitly curtailed in the new United States Constitution .Frederic Jesup Stimson, The Law of the Federal and State Constitutions of the United States; Book One, Origin and Growth of the American Constitutions , 2004, Introductory, Lawbook Exchange Ltd, ISBN 1-58477-369-3Charles Lund Black, A New Birth of Freedom , 1999, p. 10, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-07734-3

The United States Supreme Court has explicitly referenced Edward Coke|Lord Coke 's analysis of Magna Carta as an antecedent of the Sixth Amendment of the United States Constitution|Sixth Amendment's right to a speedy trial.

Nineteenth Century and beyond

Whilst radicals such as Sir Francis Burdett believed that Magna Carta could not be repealed, the 19th century would see the beginning of the repeal of many of the clauses of Magna Carta. The clauses were either obsolete and/or had been replaced by later legislation.

William Stubbs ’s Constitutional History of England would be the high-water mark of the Whig interpretation of history. Stubbs believed that Magna Carta had been a major step in the shaping of the English people and he believed that the Barons at Runnymede were not just the Barons but the people.Turner, Ralph V. Magna Carta Pearson (2003) pp1990-200

This view of history however, was passing. At the popular level William Howitt in John Cassell|Cassell 's Illustrated history of England would note that it was fiction that King John’s Charter was the same Magna Carta as was on the statute books and stated that “The Barons, in fact, were amongst the greatest traitors that England ever produced”.Volume 6 1862 pV A more academic history was provided by Frederic William Maitland in History of English Law before the Time of Edward I which began to move Magna Carta away from the myth that had grown up around it and return it to its historical roots. In many literary representations of the medieval past, however, Magna Carta remained the foundation for many diverse constructions of English national identity. Some authors instrumentalized the medieval roots of the document to preserve the social status quo while others utilized the precious national inheritance to change perceived economic injustice.Clare A. Simmons, "Absent Presence: The Romantic-Era Magna Charta and the English Constitution," in Medievalism in the Modern World. Essays in Honour of Leslie J. Workman , ed. Richard Utz and Tom Shippey (Turnhout: Brepols, 1998), pp. 69–83.

In 1904 Edward Jenks published in the Independent Review an article entitled “The Myth of Magna Carta” which undermined the traditionally accepted view of Magna Carta.Galef, David Second thoughts: a focus on rereading Wayne State University Press (1998) p78-79 Historians like A. F. Pollard would agree with Jenks in considering Coke to have ‘invented’ Magna Carta, noting that the Charter at Runnymede had not meant popular liberty at all.Pollard, Albert F. The History of England; a study in political evolution (1912)pp31-32

Sellar and Yeatman in their parody 1066 and All That would play on the supposed importance of Magna Carta and its supposed universal liberty:. “Magna Charter was therefore the chief cause of Democracy in England, and thus a Good Thing for everyone (except the Common People)”.

Influences on later constitutions

Many later attempts to draft constitutional forms of government, including the United States Constitution , trace their lineage back to this source document.

The British dominions, Australia and New Zealand,Clark, David The Icon of Liberty: The Status and Role of Magna Carta in Australian and New Zealand Law Melbourne University Law Review 34 (2000) CanadaKennedy, William Paul Mcclure The Constitution of Canada; An Introduction to Its Development and Law (1922) p228 (except Quebec ), and formerly Union of South Africa and Southern Rhodesia , all looked back to Magna Carta in their law, and the Charter impacted generally on the states that evolved from the British Empire .Drew, Katherine Fischer Magna Carta Greenwood (2004) pxvi & pxxiii

Exemplifications

Numerous copies, known as " Wiktionary:exemplification|exemplification s", were made each time it was issued, so all of the participants would each have one – in the case of the 1215 copy, one for the royal archives, one for the Cinque Ports|Barons of the Cinque Ports , and one for each of the 40 historic counties of England|counties of the time. If there ever was one single ' Originality|master copy ' of Magna Carta sealed by King John in 1215, it has not survived. Four exemplifications of the original 1215 text remain, all of which are located in England, some on permanent display:

The 'burnt copy', was found in the archives of Dover Castle in 1630 by Sir Edward Dering, 1st Baronet|Sir Edward Dering and sent to the antiquarian Sir Robert Cotton, 1st Baronet, of Connington|Sir Robert Cotton and is assumed to be the copy sent to the Cinque Ports on or after 24 June 1215. It was subsequently damaged in a fire at Ashburnham House where the Cotton Library was housed, and is now virtually illegible. It is the only one of the four to have its seal surviving, which remains however as a lump of shapeless wax. It is currently held by the British Library (Cotton Charter XIII.31a).Davis, G.R.C., Magna Carta, published by the British Library Board, 1977, p.36

Another 1215 exemplification is held by the British Library (Cotton MS. Augustus II.106).

One owned by Lincoln Cathedral , normally on display at Lincoln Castle . It has an unbroken attested history at Lincoln since 1216. We hear of it in 1800 when the Chapter Clerk of the Cathedral reported that he held it in the Common Chamber, and then nothing until 1846 when the Chapter Clerk of that time moved it from within the Cathedral to a property just outside. In 1848, Magna Carta was shown to a visiting group who reported it as "hanging on the wall in an oak frame in beautiful preservation". It went to the 1939 New York World's Fair|New York World Fair in 1939. In 1941, after war broke out with Japan, Magna Carta was sent to Fort Knox , along with the U.S. Declaration of Independence and Constitution, until 1944, when it was deemed safe to return them., GlobalSecurity.org Having returned to Lincoln, it has been back to the United States on various occasions since then. It was taken out of display for a time to undergo conservation in preparation for its visit to the United States, where it was exhibited at the Contemporary Art Center of Virginia from 30 March to 18 June 2007 in recognition of the Jamestown, Virginia|Jamestown quadricentennial. From 4 July to 25 July 2007, the document was displayed at the National Constitution Center in Philadelphia, returning to Lincoln Castle afterwards. The document returned to New York to be displayed at the Fraunces Tavern Museum from 15 September to 15 December 2009 and has since returned to Lincoln., The New York Times , 13 September 2009, Fraunces Tavern Museum

One owned by and displayed at Salisbury Cathedral . It is the best preserved of the four., BBC News Online , 4 August 2009

Other early versions of Magna Carta survive. Durham Cathedral possesses 1216, 1217, and 1225 copies.

A near-perfect 1217 copy is held by Hereford Cathedral and is occasionally displayed alongside the Hereford Mappa Mundi|Mappa Mundi in the cathedral's chained library . Remarkably, the Hereford Magna Carta is the only one known to survive along with an early version of a Magna Carta 'users manual', a small document that was sent along with Magna Carta telling the Sheriff of the county to observe the conditions outlined in the document.

Four copies are held by the Bodleian Library in Oxford . Three of these are 1217 issues and one a 1225 issue. On 10 December 2007, these were put on public display for the first time. One of the Bodleian exemplifications from 1217 (once possibly held by Gloucester Cathedral ) was displayed at San Francisco's California Palace of the Legion of Honor May 7 - June 6, 2011.

In 1952 the Australian Government purchased a 1297 copy of Magna Carta for £12,500 from King's School, Bruton , England.Harry Evans, This copy is now on display in the Members' Hall of Parliament House, Canberra|Parliament House , Canberra. In January 2006, it was announced by the Department of Parliamentary Services that the document had been revalued down from Australian dollar|A$ 40m to A$15m.

Only one copy (a 1297 copy in cursiva anglicana handwriting with the royal seal of Edward I of England|Edward I ) is in private hands; it was held by the Brudenell family, earls of Cardigan, Ceredigion|Cardigan , who had owned it for five centuries, before being sold to the Ross Perot|Perot Foundation in 1984. This copy, having been on long-term loan to the US National Archives , was auctioned at Sotheby's New York on 18 December 2007; The Perot Foundation sold it in order to "have funds available for medical research, for improving public education and for assisting wounded soldiers and their families." It fetched US$21.3& nbsp;million, It was bought by David Rubenstein of The Carlyle Group , who after the auction said, "I thought it was very important that the Magna Carta stay in the United States and I was concerned that the only copy in the United States might escape as a result of this auction." Rubenstein's copy is on permanent loan to the National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives in Washington, D.C.. "Magna Carta Comes to America", American Heritage , Spring/Summer 2008.

The Rubenstein Magna Carta was removed from display 2 March 2011 for conservation treatment and reencasement in an anoxic environment provided by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) the government agency responsible for the 1950s encasement of the Charters of Freedom. After treatment and encasement by National Archives conservators, Magna Carta will be available to the public in March 2012.

Usage of the definite article, spelling "Magna Carta"

Since there is no direct, consistent correlate of the English definite article in Latin , the usual academic convention is to refer to the document in English without the article as "Magna Carta" rather than " the Magna Carta". According to the Oxford English Dictionary , the first written appearance of the term was in 1218: " (Latin: "We concede the certain liberties here written in our great charter concerning liberties"). However, " the Magna Carta" is frequently used in both academic and non-academic speech.

Especially in the past, the document has also been referred to as "Magna Charta", but the pronunciation was the same. "Magna Charta" is still an acceptable variant spelling recorded in many dictionaries due to continued use in some reputable sources. From the 13th to the 17th centuries, only the spelling "Magna Carta" was used. The spelling "Magna Charta" began to be used in the 18th century but never became more common despite also being used by some reputable writers. , Bryan A. Garner''

Popular perceptions

Symbol and practice

Magna Carta is often a symbol for the first time the citizens of England were granted rights against an absolute king. However, in practice the Commons could not enforce Magna Carta in the few situations where it applied to them, so its reach was limited. Also, a large part of Magna Carta was copied, nearly word for word, from the Charter of Liberties of Henry I of England|Henry I , issued when Henry I rose to the throne in 1100, which bound the king to laws which effectively granted certain civil liberties to the church and the English nobility.

Many documents form Magna Carta

Although Magna Carta is popularly thought of as the document which was forced upon King John in 1215, this version of the charter was almost immediately annulled. Later monarchs reissued the document, but without the most direct challenges to their power, and without the provisions which were intended to right immediate wrongs rather than make long-term constitutional changes. The version which forms part of English law is actually that of 1297. Magna Carta can therefore be used to refer to any one of several related (but not identical) 13th century documents, or indeed to the various charters as a whole.

The document was unsigned

Popular perception is that John, King of England|King John and the barons signed Magna Carta. There were no signatures on the original document, however, only a single seal placed by the king. The words of the charter – Data per manum nostram – signify that the document was personally given by the king's hand. By placing his seal on the document, the King and the barons followed common law that a seal was sufficient to authenticate a deed, though it had to be done in front of witnesses. John's seal was the only one, and he did not sign it. The barons neither signed nor attached their seals to it.

Perception in America

The document is also honoured in America, where it is an antecedent of the United States Constitution and Bill of Rights. In 1957, the American Bar Association erected the Runnymede Memorial. In 1976, the UK lent an original 1215 Magna Carta to the U.S. for its bicentennial celebrations, and also donated an ornate case to display it, which included a gold replica of Magna Carta. The case and gold replica are still on display in the U.S. Capitol Rotunda in Washington, D.C.Sarasin, Ronald A., , United States Capitol Historical Society , 12 September 2003.

21st-century Britain

In 2006, BBC History (magazine)|BBC History held a poll to recommend a date for a proposed "Britain Day". 15 June, which was the date of the original 1215 Magna Carta, received most votes, above other suggestions such as Normandy Landings|D-Day , VE Day , and Remembrance Day . The outcome was not binding, although the then Chancellor of the Exchequer|Chancellor Gordon Brown had previously given his support to the idea of a new national day to celebrate Britishness|British identity . It was used as the name for an anti-surveillance movement in the 2008 BBC series The Last Enemy (TV series)|The Last Enemy . According to a poll carried out by YouGov in 2008, 45% of the British public do not know what Magna Carta is. However, its perceived guarantee of trial by jury and other civil liberties led to Tony Benn referring to the debate over whether to increase the maximum time terrorist suspects could be detention of suspects#Time limits|held without charge from 28 to 42 days as "the day Magna Carta was repealed".

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