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Biography
Other usesRedirect|Dramas|the indie rock band|The DramasSee Also|Theatrepp-move-indefliterature Drama is the specific Mode (literature)|mode of fiction Mimesis|represented in performance .Elam (1980, 98). The term comes from a Ancient Greek|Greek word meaning " Action (philosophy)|action " ( Classical Greek : Polytonic|d??µa, drama ), which is derived from "to do","to act" ( Classical Greek : Polytonic|d???, drao ). The enactment of drama in theatre , performed by actor s on a Stage (theatre)|stage before an audience , presupposes Collaboration|collaborative modes of production and a collective form of reception. The Dramatic structure|structure of dramatic texts , unlike other forms of literature , is directly influenced by this collaborative production and collective reception.Pfister (1977, 11). The English Renaissance theatre|early modern tragedy Hamlet ( 1601 in literature|1601 ) by William Shakespeare|Shakespeare and the Theatre of ancient Greece|classical Athenian tragedy Oedipus the King (c. 429 BCE) by Sophocles are among the masterpieces of the art of drama.Fergusson (1949, 2–3). A modern example is '' Long Day's Journey into Night by Eugene O’Neill (1956).Burt, Daniel S. The Drama 100: A Ranking of the Greatest Plays of All Time (2008) Facts on File ISBN 978-0-8160-6073-3
The two masks associated with drama represent the traditional Genre|generic division between Comedy (drama)|comedy and tragedy . They are symbols of the ancient Greek Muses , Thalia (muse)|Thalia and Melpomene . Thalia was the Muse of comedy (the laughing face), while Melpomene was the Muse of tragedy (the weeping face). Considered as a genre of poetry in general, the dramatic mode has been contrasted with the Epic poetry|epic and the Lyric poetry|lyrical modes ever since Aristotle 's Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics (c. 335 BCE)—the earliest work of dramatic theory . Francis Fergusson writes that "a drama, as distinguished from a Lyric poetry|lyric , is not primarily a composition in the verbal medium; the Dialogue (fiction)|words result, as one might put it, from the underlying Dramatic structure|structure of incident and Character (arts)|character . As Poetics (Aristotle)|Aristotle remarks, 'the poet, or "maker" should be the maker of Plot (narrative)|plots rather than of verses; since he is a poet because he Mimesis|imiates , and what he imitates are Action (philosophy)|actions '" (1949, 8).
The use of "drama" in the narrow sense to designate a specific type of Play (theatre)|play dates from the Nineteenth-century theatre|19th century . Drama in this sense refers to a play that is neither a comedy nor a tragedy—for example, Émile Zola|Zola's Thérèse Raquin ( 1873 in literature|1873 ) or Anton Chekhov|Chekhov's Ivanov (play)|Ivanov ( 1887 in literature|1887 ). It is this narrow sense that the film and television industry and film studies adopted to describe " Drama film|drama " as a Film genre|genre within their respective media.See also Wikipedia's List of drama films . " Radio drama " has been used in both senses—originally transmitted in a live performance, it has also been used to describe the more high-brow and serious end of the dramatic output of radio .Banham (1998, 894–900).
Drama is often combined with music and dance : the drama in opera is generally sung throughout; Musical theatre|musicals generally include both spoken dialogue and song s; and some forms of drama have incidental music or musical accompaniment underscoring the dialogue ( melodrama and Japanese Noh|No , for example).See the entries for "opera", "musical theatre, American", "melodrama" and "No" in Banham (1998). In certain periods of history (the ancient Ancient Rome|Roman and modern Romanticism|Romantic ) some dramas have been written to be Closet drama|read rather than performed.While there is some dispute among theatre historians, it is probable that the plays by the Roman Seneca the Younger|Seneca were not intended to be performed. Manfred by George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Byron is a good example of a " Verse drama and dramatic verse|dramatic poem ." See the entries on "Seneca" and "Byron (George George)" in Banham (1998). In Improvisational theatre|improvisation , the drama does not pre-exist the moment of performance; performers devise a dramatic script spontaneously before an audience.Some forms of improvisation, notably the Commedia dell'arte , improvise on the basis of 'lazzi' or rough outlines of scenic action (see Gordon (1983) and Duchartre (1929)). All forms of improvisation take their cue from their immediate response to one another, their characters' situations (which are sometimes established in advance), and, often, their interaction with the audience. The classic formulations of improvisation in the theatre originated with Joan Littlewood and Keith Johnstone in the UK and Viola Spolin in the USA; see Johnstone (1981) and Spolin (1963).
History of Western drama
Campaignbox History of theatre
Classical Athenian drama
Campaignbox Athenian drama Western culture|Western drama originates in classical Greece .Brown (1998, 441), Cartledge (1997, 3–5), Goldhill (1997, 54), and Ley (2007, 206). Taxidou notes that "most scholars now call 'Greek' tragedy 'Athenian' tragedy, which is historically correct" (2004, 104). Brown writes that Theatre of ancient Greece|ancient Greek drama "was essentially the creation of classical Athens : all the dramatists who were later regarded as classics were active at Athens in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE (the time of the Athenian democracy ), and all the surviving plays date from this period" (1998, 441). "The dominant culture of Classical Athens|Athens in the fifth century ", Goldhill writes, "can be said to have invented theatre " (1997, 54). The Theatre of ancient Greece|theatrical culture of the Polis|city-state of Classical Athens|Athens produced three genre s of drama: tragedy , Comedy (drama)|comedy , and the satyr play . Their origins remain obscure, though by the 5th century BCE they were institution alised in Agon|competitions held as part of Athenian festivals|festivities celebrating the god Dionysus .Brockett and Hildy (2003, 13–15) and Banham (1998, 441–447). Historians know the names of many ancient Greek dramatists, not least Thespis , who is credited with the innovation of an actor (" hypokrites ") who speaks (rather than sings) and impersonates a Character (arts)|character (rather than speaking in his own person), while interacting with the Greek chorus|chorus and its leader (" coryphaeus "), who were a traditional part of the performance of non-dramatic poetry ( dithyramb ic, Lyric poetry|lyric and Epic poetry|epic ).Banham (1998, 441–444). For more information on these ancient Greek dramatists, see :Category:Ancient Greek dramatists and playwrights|the articles categorised under "Ancient Greek dramatists and playwrights" in Wikipedia . Only a small fraction of the work of five dramatists, however, has survived to this day: we have a small number of complete texts by the tragedians Aeschylus , Sophocles and Euripides , and the comic writers Aristophanes and, from the late 4th century, Menander .The theory that Prometheus Bound was not written by Aeschylus would bring this number to six dramatists whose work survives. Aeschylus' historical tragedy The Persians is the oldest surviving drama, although when it won first prize at the Dionysia|City Dionysia competition in 472 BCE, he had been writing plays for more than 25 years.Banham (1998, 8) and Brockett and Hildy (2003, 15–16). The competition (" agon ") for tragedies may have begun as early as 534 BCE; official records (" didaskaliai ") begin from 501 BCE, when the satyr play was introduced.Brockett and Hildy (2003, 13, 15) and Banham (1998, 442). Tragic dramatists were required to present a tetralogy of plays (though the individual works were not necessarily connected by story or theme), which usually consisted of three tragedies and one satyr play (though exceptions were made, as with Euripides' Alcestis (play)|Alcestis in 438 BCE). Comedy was officially recognised with a prize in the competition from 487 to 486 BCE. Five comic dramatists competed at the City Dionysia (though during the Peloponnesian War this may have been reduced to three), each offering a single comedy.Brockett and Hildy (2003, 18) and Banham (1998, 444–445). Ancient Greek comedy is traditionally divided between "old comedy" (5th century BCE), "middle comedy" (4th century BCE) and "new comedy" (late 4th century to 2nd BCE).Banham (1998, 444–445).
Roman drama
Campaignbox Roman theatreFollowing the expansion of the Roman Republic (509–27 BCE) into several Greek territories between 270–240 BCE, Rome encountered Theatre of ancient Greece|Greek drama .Brockett and Hildy (2003, 43). From the later years of the republic and by means of the Roman Empire (27 BCE-476 CE), theatre spread west across Europe, around the Mediterranean and reached England; Theatre of ancient Rome|Roman theatre was more varied, extensive and sophisticated than that of any culture before it.Brockett and Hildy (2003, 36, 47). While Greek drama continued to be performed throughout the Roman period, the year 240 BCE marks the beginning of regular Theatre of ancient Rome|Roman drama .Brockett and Hildy (2003, 43). For more information on the ancient Roman dramatists, see :Category:Ancient Roman dramatists and playwrights|the articles categorised under "Ancient Roman dramatists and playwrights" in Wikipedia . From the beginning of the empire, however, interest in full-length drama declined in favour of a broader variety of theatrical entertainments.Brockett and Hildy (2003, 46–47). The first important works of Latin literature|Roman literature were the Tragedy|tragedies and Comedy (drama)|comedies that Livius Andronicus wrote from 240 BCE.Brockett and Hildy (2003, 47). Five years later, Gnaeus Naevius also began to write drama. No plays from either writer have survived. While both dramatists composed in both genres , Andronicus was most appreciated for his tragedies and Naevius for his comedies; their successors tended to specialise in one or the other, which led to a separation of the subsequent development of each type of drama. By the beginning of the 2nd century BCE, drama was firmly established in Rome and a guild of writers ( collegium poetarum ) had been formed.Brockett and Hildy (2003, 47–48). The Roman comedies that have survived are all fabula palliata (comedies based on Greek subjects) and come from two dramatists: Plautus|Titus Maccius Plautus (Plautus) and Terence|Publius Terentius Afer (Terence).Brockett and Hildy (2003, 48–49). In re-working the Greek originals, the Roman comic dramatists abolished the role of the Greek chorus|chorus in dividing the drama into episode s and introduced musical accompaniment to its dialogue (between one-third of the dialogue in the comedies of Plautus and two-thirds in those of Terence).Brockett and Hildy (2003, 49). The action of all scenes is set in the exterior location of a street and its complications often follow from eavesdropping . Plautus, the more popular of the two, wrote between 205 and 184 BCE and twenty of his comedies survive, of which his farce s are best known; he was admired for the wit of his dialogue and his use of a variety of Meter (poetry)|poetic meters .Brockett and Hildy (2003, 48). All of the six comedies that Terence wrote between 166 and 160 BCE have survived; the complexity of his plots, in which he often combined several Greek originals, was sometimes denounced, but his double-plots enabled a sophisticated presentation of contrasting human behaviour. No early Roman tragedy survives, though it was highly regarded in its day; historians know of three early tragedians— Quintus Ennius , Marcus Pacuvius and Lucius Accius . From the time of the empire, the work of two tragedians survives—one is an unknown author, while the other is the Stoicism|Stoic philosopher Seneca the Younger|Seneca .Brockett and Hildy (2003, 50). Nine of Seneca's tragedies survive, all of which are fabula crepidata (tragedies adapted from Greek originals); his Phaedra (Seneca)|Phaedra , for example, was based on Euripides ' Hippolytus (play)|Hippolytus .Brockett and Hildy (2003, 49–50). Historians do not know who wrote the only Extant literature|extant example of the fabula praetexta (tragedies based on Roman subjects), Octavia (play)|Octavia , but in former times it was mistakenly attributed to Seneca due to his appearance as a Character (arts)|character in the tragedy.
Medieval
Campaignbox Medieval theatreIn the Middle Ages, drama in the vernacular languages of Europe may have emerged from religious enactments of the liturgy . Mystery play s were presented on the porch of the cathedrals or by strolling players on Calendar of saints|feast days . Miracle play|Miracle and mystery plays, along with Morality play|moralities and interludes, later evolved into more elaborate forms of drama, such as was seen on the Elizabethan stages.
Elizabethan and Jacobean
Main|English Renaissance theatreOne of the great flowerings of drama in England occurred in the 16th and 17th centuries. Many of these plays were written in verse, particularly iambic pentameter . In addition to Shakespeare, such authors as Christopher Marlowe , Thomas Middleton , and Ben Jonson were prominent playwrights during this period. As in the Middle Ages|medieval period , historical plays celebrated the lives of past kings, enhancing the image of the Tudor dynasty|Tudor monarchy. Authors of this period drew some of their storylines from Greek mythology and Roman mythology or from the plays of eminent Roman playwrights such as Plautus and Terence .
Modern and postmodern
Campaignbox Modern dramaThe pivotal and innovative contributions of the Nineteenth-century theatre|19th-century Norwegian dramatist Henrik Ibsen and the Twentieth-century theatre|20th-century German theatre practitioner Bertolt Brecht dominate modern drama; each inspired a tradition of imitators, which include many of the greatest playwrights of the modern era.Williams (1993, 25–26) and Moi (2006, 17). Moi writes that "Ibsen is the most important playwright writing after Shakespeare. He is the founder of modern theater. His plays are world classics, staged on every continent, and studied in classrooms everywhere. In any given year, there are hundreds of Ibsen productions in the world." Ibsenites include George Bernard Shaw and Arthur Miller ; Brechtians include Dario Fo , Joan Littlewood , W. H. Auden Peter Weiss , Heiner Müller , Peter Hacks , Tony Kushner , Caryl Churchill , John Arden , Howard Brenton , Edward Bond , and David Hare (playwright)|David Hare . The works of both playwrights are, in their different ways, both Modernism|modernist and Realism (theatre)|realist , incorporating formal Experimental theatre|experimentation , meta-theatre|meta-theatricality , and Social criticism|social critique .Moi (2006, 1, 23–26). Taxidou writes: "It is probably historically more accurate, although methodologically less satisfactory, to read the Naturalism (theatre)|Naturalist movement in the theatre in conjunction with the more anti-illusionist aesthetics of the theatres of the same period. These interlock and overlap in all sorts of complicated ways, even when they are vehemently denouncing each other (perhaps particularly when) in the favoured mode of the time, the manifesto" (2007, 58). In terms of the traditional theoretical discourse of genre, Ibsen's work has been described as the culmination of " Tragedy#Modern development of tragedy|liberal tragedy ", while Brecht's has been aligned with an Historicization|historicised comedy.Williams (1966) and Wright (1989).
Other important playwrights of the modern era include Antonin Artaud, August Strindberg , Anton Chekhov , Frank Wedekind , Maurice Maeterlinck , Federico García Lorca , Eugene O'Neill , Luigi Pirandello , George Bernard Shaw , Ernst Toller , Vladimir Mayakovsky , Arthur Miller , Tennessee Williams , Jean Genet , Eugène Ionesco , Samuel Beckett , Harold Pinter , Friedrich Dürrenmatt , Dario Fo , Heiner Müller , and Caryl Churchill .
Asian drama
India
Main|Theatre in IndiaThe earliest form of India n drama was the Sanskrit drama .Richmond, Swann, and Zarrilli (1993, 12). It began after the development of Theatre of ancient Greece|Greek and Theatre of ancient Rome|Roman drama and before the development of theatre in other parts of Asia. It emerged sometime between the 2nd century BCE and the 1st century CE and flourished between the 1st century CE and the 10th, which was a period of relative peace in the history of India during which hundreds of plays were written.Brandon (1997, 70) and Richmond (1998, 516). With the Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent|Islamic conquests that began in the 10th and 11th centuries, theatre was discouraged or forbidden entirely.Brandon (1997, 72) and Richmond (1998, 516). Later, in an attempt to re-assert indigenous values and ideas, village theatre was encouraged across the subcontinent, developing in a large number of regional languages from the 15th to the 19th centuries.Brandon (1997, 72), Richmond (1998, 516), and Richmond, Swann, and Zarrilli (1993, 12). Modern Indian theatre developed during the British Raj|period of colonial rule under the British Empire , from the mid-19th century until the mid-20th.Richmond (1998, 516) and Richmond, Swann, and Zarrilli (1993, 13).
Sanskrit theatre
Main|Sanskrit dramaThe earliest-surviving fragments of Sanskrit drama date from the 1st century CE.Brandon (1981, xvii) and Richmond (1998, 516–517). The wealth of archeological evidence from earlier periods offers no indication of the existence of a tradition of theatre.Richmond (1998, 516). The ancient Vedas ( hymn s from between 1500 to 1000 BCE that are among the earliest examples of History of literature#India|literature in the world) contain no hint of it (although a small number are composed in a form of dialogue ) and the ritual s of the Vedic period do not appear to have developed into theatre. The Mahabha?ya by Patañjali contains the earliest reference to what may have been the seeds of Sanskrit drama.Richmond (1998, 517). This treatise on grammar from 140 BCE provides a feasible date for the beginnings of theatre in India .
The major source of evidence for Sanskrit theatre is Natyashastra|A Treatise on Theatre ( Natyasastra ), a compendium whose date of composition is uncertain (estimates range from 200 BCE to 200 CE) and whose authorship is attributed to Bharata Muni . The Treatise is the most complete work of dramaturgy in the ancient world. It addresses acting , dance , music , Dramaturgy|dramatic construction , Theatre architecture|architecture , Costume design|costuming , Theatrical makeup|make-up , Theatrical properties|props , the organisation of companies, the audience, competitions, and offers a Hindu mythology|mythological account of the origin of theatre.
Its drama is regarded as the highest achievement of Sanskrit literature .Brandon (1981, xvii). It utilised stock character s, such as the hero ( nayaka ), heroine ( nayika ), or clown ( vidusaka ). Actors may have specialised in a particular type. It was patronized by the kings as well as village assemblies. Famous early playwrights include Bhasa , Kalidasa (famous for Vikramorvasiyam|Vikrama and Urvashi , Malavikagnimitram|Malavika and Agnimitra , and Abhijñanasakuntalam|The Recognition of Shakuntala ), Sudraka (famous for M?cchakatika|The Little Clay Cart ), Asvaghosa , Da??in , and Harsha|Emperor Harsha (famous for Nagananda , Ratnavali and Priyadarsika ). Abhijñanasakuntalam|Sakuntala (in English translation) influenced Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe's '' Goethe's Faust|Faust (1808–1832).
Modern Indian drama
Rabindranath Tagore , who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913, is probably India's best-known modern playwright.Banham (1998, 1051). His plays are written in Bengali language|Bengali and include Chitra ( Chitrangada , 1892), The King of the Dark Chamber ( Raja , 1910), The Post Office (play)|The Post Office ( Dakghar , 1913), and Red Oleander ( Raktakarabi , 1924).
Modern Urdu drama of India and Pakistan
references|section|date=December 2011Original research|section|date=December 2011Urdu Drama evolved from the prevailing dramatic traditions of North India shaping Rahas or Raas as practiced by exponents like Nawab Wajid Ali Shah of Awadh . His dramatic experiments led to the famous Inder Sabha of Amanat and later this tradition took the shape of Parsi Theatre. Agha Hashr Kashmiri is the culmination of this tradition.
In some way or other, Urdu theatre tradition has greatly influenced modern Indian theatre . Among all the languages Urdu (which was called Hindi by early writers), along with Gujrati , Marathi language|Marathi and Bengali language|Bengali theatres have kept flourishing and demand for its writers and artists has not subsided by the drama aficionados. For Urdu drama, no place is better than Bombay Film industry otherwise known as Hindi film industry . All the early gems of Urdu Theatre (performed by Parsi Companies) were made into films. Urdu Dramatic tradition has been a spectator’s delight since 100 years and counting.
Drama as a theme is made up of several elements. It focuses on life and different aspects of it. The thing to be noticed here is that drama on stage imitates drama in life. It has been said that, there has always been a mutual relationship between theatre and real life. Great historical personalities like Shakespeare have influenced Modern Urdu tradition to a large extent when Indian, Iranian, Turkish stories and folk was adapted for stage with heavy doses of Urdu poetry . In modern times writers like Imtiaz Ali Taj, Rafi Peer, Krishan Chander , Saadat Hasan Manto|Manto , Upender Nath Ashk, Ghulam Rabbani, Prof. Mujeeb and many others shaped this tradition.
While Prof Hasan, Ghulam Jeelani, J.N,Kaushal, Shameem Hanfi, Jameel Shaidayi, etc. belong to the old generation, contemporary writers like Danish Iqbal, Sayeed Alam, Shahid Anwar, Iqbal Niyazi, and Anwar are a few postmodern playwrights actively contributing in the field of Urdu Drama.
Sayeed Alam is known for his wit and humour and more particularly for Plays like 'Ghalib in New Delhi' 'Big B'and many other gems which are regularly staged for massive turn out of theatre lovers. Maulana Azad is his magnum opus both for its content and style.
Danish Iqbal's play about ' Dara Shikoh ' directed by M. S. Sathyu is considered a modern classic for the use of newer theatre techniques and contemporary perspective. His other plays are ' Sahir ' on the famous lyricist and revolutionary poet. 'Kuchh Ishq kiya Kuchh Kaam' is another play written by Danish which is basically a Celebration of the Faiz Ahmad Faiz|Faiz 's poetry, featuring events from the early part of his life, particularly the events and incidents of pre-partition days which shaped his life and ideals. 'Chand Roz Aur Meri Jaan' - another play inspired from Faiz's letters written from various jails during the Rawalpindi Conspiracy days. He has written 14 other plays including 'Dilli Jo Ek Shehr Thaa' and 'Main Gaya Waqt Nahin hoon'. Shahid's 'Three B' is also a significant play. He has been associated with many groups like 'Natwa' and others. Zaheer Anwar has kept the flag of Urdu theatre flying in Kolkata . Unlike the writers of previous generation Sayeed, Shahid, Danish Iqbal and Zaheer do not write bookish plays but their work is a product of vigorous performing tradition. Iqbal Niyazi of Mumbai has written several plays in Urdu, his play "AUR KITNE JALYANWALA BAUGH? " won a National award other awards. Hence this is the only generation after Amanat and Agha Hashr who actually write for stage and not for libraries.
China
Main|Chinese opera Chinese theatre has a long and complex history. Today it is often called Chinese opera although this normally refers specifically to the popular form known as Beijing Opera and Kunqu ; there have been many other forms of theatre in China.
Japan
Japanese Noh|No drama is a serious dramatic form that combines drama, music, and dance into a complete aesthetic performance experience. It developed in the 14th and 15th centuries and has its own musical instruments and performance techniques, which were often handed down from father to son. The performers were generally male (for both male and female roles), although female amateurs also perform No dramas. No drama was supported by the government, and particularly the military, with many military commanders having their own troupes and sometimes performing themselves. It is still performed in Japan today. http://www.iijnet.or.jp/NOH-KYOGEN/english/english.html Website referencedead link|date=January 2012
Kyogen is the comic counterpart to No drama. It concentrates more on dialogue and less on music, although No instrumentalists sometimes appear also in Kyogen. Kabuki drama, developed from the 17th century, is another comic form, which includes dance.
Forms of drama
Opera
Opera|Western opera is a dramatic art form, which arose during the Renaissance in an attempt to revive the classical Greek drama tradition in which both music and theatre were combined. Being strongly intertwined with Classical music|western classical music , the opera has undergone enormous changes in the past four centuries and it is an important form of theatre until this day. Noteworthy is the huge influence of the German 19th century composer Wagner|Richard Wagner on the opera tradition. In his view, there was no proper balance between music and theatre in the operas of his time, because the music seemed to be more important than the dramatic aspects in these works. To restore the connection with the traditional Theatre of Ancient Greece|Greek drama , he entirely renewed the operatic format, and to emphasize the equal importance of music and drama in these new works, he called them " music drama s".
Chinese opera has seen a more conservative development over a somewhat longer period of time.
Pantomime
Main|PantomimeThese stories follow in the tradition of fable s and folk tale s. Usually there is a lesson learned, and with some help from the audience, the hero/heroine saves the day. This kind of play uses stock character s seen in masque and again commedia dell'arte , these characters include the villain (doctore), the clown/servant (Arlechino/Harlequin/buttons), the lovers etc. These plays usually have an emphasis on moral dilemma s, and good always triumphs over evil, this kind of play is also very entertaining making it a very effective way of reaching many people.
Creative drama
Creative drama includes dramatic activities and games used primarily in educational settings with children. Its roots in the United States began in the early 1900s. Winifred Ward is considered to be the founder of creative drama in education, establishing the first academic use of drama in Evanston, Illinois Citation needed|date=April 2010.
Legal status
UK
The Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 does not define a dramatic work except to state that it includes a work of dance or mime. However, it is clear that dramatic work includes the scenario or script for films, plays (written for theatre, cinema, television or radio). Green v. Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand 1989 and choreographic works.The fixation of such a work can be in writing "or otherwise" and may accordingly be, for instance, on film. Where a dramatic work is recorded on a film, the film must contain the whole of the dramatic work in an unmodified state: Norowzian v. Arks 2000 (dance recorded on film, which was then edited, could not be protected because the film had been drastically edited and was not therefore a recording of the dance).
See also
div col|cols=3
Applied Drama
Augustan drama
Christian drama
Closet drama
Costume drama
Crime drama
Domestic drama
Dramatic structure
Dramatic theory
Flash drama
Folk play
Heroic drama
History of theatre
Legal drama
Medical drama
Melodrama
Monodrama
Mystery play
One act play
Play (theatre)|Play
Political drama
Radio drama
Soap opera
:Category:Theatre awards|Theatre awards
Two-hander
Verse drama and dramatic verse
Well-made play
Yakshagana —An Indian musical drama
Portal|Theatrediv col end
Notes
Reflist|30em
Sources
refbegin|30em
Banham, Martin, ed. 1998. The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521434378.
Baumer, Rachel Van M., and James R. Brandon, eds. 1981. Sanskrit Theatre in Performance. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1993. ISBN 978-8120807723.
Brandon, James R. 1981. Introduction. In Baumer and Brandon (1981, xvii–xx).
---, ed. 1997. The Cambridge Guide to Asian Theatre. 2nd, rev. ed. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0521588225.
Brockett, Oscar G. and Franklin J. Hildy. 2003. History of the Theatre . Ninth edition, International edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. ISBN 0205410502.
Brown, Andrew. 1998. "Ancient Greece." In The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Ed. Martin Banham. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. 441–447. ISBN 0521434378.
Carlson, Marvin. 1993. Theories of the Theatre: A Historical and Critical Survey from the Greeks to the Present. Expanded ed. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0801481543.
Cartledge, Paul. 1997. "'Deep Plays': Theatre as Process in Greek Civic Life." In Easterling (1997c, 3–35).
Duchartre, Pierre Louis. 1929. The Italian Comedy . Unabridged republication. New York: Dover, 1966. ISBN 0486216799.
Dukore, Bernard F., ed. 1974. Dramatic Theory and Criticism: Greeks to . Florence, Kentucky: Heinle & Heinle. ISBN 0030911524.
Durant, Will & Ariel Durant. 1963 The Story of Civilization, Volume II: The Life of Greece . 11 vols. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Easterling, P. E. 1997a. "A Show for Dionysus." In Easterling (1997c, 36–53).
—. 1997b. "Form and Performance." In Easterling (1997c, 151–177).
—, ed. 1997c. The Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy . Cambridge Companions to Literature ser. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. ISBN 0521423511.
Elam, Keir. 1980. The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama . New Accents Ser. London and New York: Methuen. ISBN 0416720609.
Francis Fergusson|Fergusson, Francis . 1949. The Idea of a Theater: A Study of Ten Plays, The Art of Drama in a Changing Perspective. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton UP, 1968. ISBN 0691012881.
Goldhill, Simon. 1997. "The Audience of Athenian Tragedy." In Easterling (1997c, 54–68).
Gordon, Mel. 1983. '' Lazzi : The Comic Routines of the Commedia dell'Arte . New York: Performing Arts Journal Publications. ISBN 0933826699.
Harsh, Philip Whaley. 1944. A Handbook of Classical Drama . Stanford: Stanford UP; Oxford: Oxford UP.
Keith Johnstone|Johnstone, Keith . 1981. Impro: Improvisation and the Theatre Rev. ed. London: Methuen, 2007. ISBN 0713687010.
Ley, Graham. 2006. A Short Introduction to the Ancient Greek Theater. Rev. ed. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P. ISBN 0226477614.
---. 2007. The Theatricality of Greek Tragedy: Playing Space and Chorus. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P. ISBN 0226477576.
Pfister, Manfred. 1977. The Theory and Analysis of Drama . Trans. John Halliday. European Studies in English Literature Ser. Cambridige: Cambridge University Press, 1988. ISBN 052142383X.
Rush Rehm|Rehm, Rush . 1992. Greek Tragic Theatre. Theatre Production Studies ser. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415118948.
Richmond, Farley. 1998. "India." In Banham (1998, 516–525).
Richmond, Farley P., Darius L. Swann, and Phillip B. Zarrilli, eds. 1993. Indian Theatre: Traditions of Performance. U of Hawaii P. ISBN 978-0824813222.
Viola Spolin|Spolin, Viola . 1967. Improvisation for the Theater . Third rev. ed Evanston, Il.: Northwestern University Press, 1999. ISBN 081014008X.
Taxidou, Olga. 2004. Tragedy, Modernity and Mourning . Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP. ISBN 0748619879.
Weimann, Robert. 1978. Shakespeare and the Popular Tradition in the Theater: Studies in the Social Dimension of Dramatic Form and Function. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0801835062.
Weimann, Robert. 2000. ''Author's Pen and Actor's Voice: Playing and Writing in Shakespeare's Theatre . Ed. Helen Higbee and William West. Cambridge Studies in Renaissance Literature and Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521787351.
refend
External links
WiktionaryWikiversity|Collaborative_play_writingWikibooks|History of Western Theatre: Greeks to ElizabethansWikibooks|History of Western Theatre: 17th Century to Now
http://www.arlymasks.com/timeline.htm Greek & Roman Mask Timeline
