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Biography
Other usesInfobox Occupation| name= Engineer| caption= Conference of Engineers at the Menai Straits Preparatory to Floating one of the Tubes of the Britannia Bridge , by John Seymour Lucas , 1868| official_names= Engineer| type= Profession | activity_sector= Applied science s| competencies= Mathematics, scientific knowledge, management skills| formation= Engineering education | employment_field= Research and development , industry , business | related_occupation= Scientist , architect , project manager An engineer is a profession al practitioner of engineering , concerned with applying scientific knowledge , mathematics and ingenuity to develop solutions for technical problems. Engineers design materials, structures and systems while considering the limitations imposed by practicality, safety and cost.cite web |author= Bureau of Labor Statistics , U.S. Department of Labor |title=Engineers |work=Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2006-07 Edition |url= http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos027.htm|accessdate=2006-09-21 |year=2006 The word engineer is derived from the Latin roots ingeniare ("to contrive, devise") and ingenium ("cleverness").Oxford Concise Dictionary, 1995"engineer". Oxford Dictionaries. April 2010. Oxford Dictionaries. April 2010. Oxford University Press. 22 October 2011
Engineers are grounded in applied science s, and their work in research and development is distinct from the basic research focus of scientist s.cite web|author=National Society of Professional Engineers |title=Frequently Asked Questions About Engineering |url= http://www.nspe.org/media/mr1-faqs.asp|accessdate=2006-09-21 |year=2006 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20060522214617/ http://www.nspe.org/media/mr1-faqs.asp |archivedate = 2006-05-22 |authorlink= National Society of Professional Engineers Science is knowledge based on observed facts and tested truths arranged in an orderly system that can be validated and communicated to other people. Engineering is the creative application of scientific principles used to plan, build, direct, guide, manage, or work on systems to maintain and improve our daily lives. The work of engineers forms the link between scientific discoveries and their subsequent applications to human needs.
Roles and expertise
Design
Engineers develop new technological solutions. During the engineering design process , the responsibilities of the engineer may include defining problems, conducting and narrowing research, analyzing criteria, finding and analyzing solutions, and making decisions. Much of an engineer's time is spent on researching, locating, applying, and transferring information.A.Eide, R.Jenison, L.Mashaw, L.Northup. Engineering: Fundamentals and Problem Solving. New York City: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc.,2002 Indeed, research suggests engineers spend 56% of their time engaged in various different information behaviours, including 14% actively searching for information.Robinson, M. A. (2010). An empirical analysis of engineers’ information behaviors. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 61(4), 640–658. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/asi.21290
Engineers must weigh different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. Their crucial and unique task is to identify, understand, and interpret the constraints on a design in order to produce a successful result.
Analysis
Engineers apply techniques of engineering analysis in testing, production, or maintenance. Analytical engineers may supervise production in factories and elsewhere, determine the causes of a process failure, and test output to maintain quality. They also estimate the time and motion study|time and cost required to complete projects . Supervisory engineers are responsible for major components or entire projects. Engineering analysis involves the application of scientific analytic principles and processes to reveal the properties and state of the system, device or mechanism under study. Engineering analysis proceeds by separating the engineering design into the mechanisms of operation or failure, analyzing or estimating each component of the operation or failure mechanism in isolation, and re-combining the components. They may Risk analysis (engineering)|analyse risk .Baecher, G.B., Pate, E.M., and de Neufville, R. (1979) “Risk of dam failure in benefit/cost analysis”, Water Resources Research, 16(3), 449-456.Hartford, D.N.D. and Baecher, G.B. (2004) Risk and Uncertainty in Dam Safety. Thomas TelfordInternational Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD) (2003) Risk Assessment in Dam Safety Management. ICOLD, ParisBritish Standards Institution (BSI) (1991)BC 5760 Part 5: Reliability of systems equipment and components - Guide to failure modes effects and criticality analysis (FMEA and FMECA).
Many engineers use computers to produce and analyze designs, to simulate and test how a machine, structure, or system operates, to generate specifications for parts, to monitor the quality of products, and to control the efficiency of processes.
Specialization and time management
Most engineers specialize in one or more List of engineering branches|engineering disciplines . Numerous specialties are recognized by professional societies, and each of the major branches of engineering has numerous subdivisions. Civil engineering, for example, includes structural and transportation engineering, and materials engineering includes ceramic, metallurgical, and polymer engineering. Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as motor vehicles, or in one type of technology, such as turbines or semiconductor materials.
Several recent studies have investigated how engineers spend their time; that is, the work tasks they perform and how their time is distributed among these. Research Robinson, M. A. (2010). An empirical analysis of engineers’ information behaviors. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 61(4), 640–658. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/asi.21290 Robinson, M. A. (2012). How design engineers spend their time: Job content and task satisfaction. Design Studies, 33(4), 391-425. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.destud.2012.03.002 suggests that there are several key themes present in engineers’ work: (1) technical work (i.e., the application of science to product development); (2) social work (i.e., interactive communication between people); (3) computer-based work; (4) information behaviours. Amongst other more detailed findings, a recent work sampling study found that engineers spend 62.92% of their time engaged in technical work, 40.37% in social work, and 49.66% in computer-based work. Furthermore, there was considerable overlap between these different types of work, with engineers spending 24.96% of their time engaged in technical and social work, 37.97% in technical and non-social, 15.42% in non-technical and social, and 21.66% in non-technical and non-social.
Engineering is also an information intensive field, with research finding that engineers spend 55.8% of their time engaged in various different information behaviours, including 14.2% actively information seeking | seeking information from other people (7.8%) and information repositories such as documents and databases (6.4%).
The time engineers spend engaged in such activities is also reflected in the competence (human resources) | competencies required in engineering roles. In addition to engineers’ core technical competence, research has also demonstrated the critical nature of their personal attributes, project management skills, and cognitive abilities to success in the role Robinson, M. A., Sparrow, P. R., Clegg, C., & Birdi, K. (2005). Design engineering competencies: Future requirements and predicted changes in the forthcoming decade. Design Studies, 26(2), 123–153. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.destud.2004.09.004.
Ethics
main|Engineering ethics Engineers have obligations to the public, their clients, employers and the profession. Many engineering societies have established codes of practice and codes of ethics to guide members and inform the public at large. Each engineering discipline and professional society maintains a code of ethics, which the members pledge to uphold. Depending on their specializations, engineers may also be governed by specific statute, whistleblowing, product liability laws, and often the principles of business ethics .cite book | author = American Society of Civil Engineers | authorlink = American Society of Civil Engineers | year = 2006 | title = Code of Ethics | publisher = ASCE Press | location = Reston, Virginia, USA | url = http://www.asce.org/Leadership-and-Management/Ethics/Code-of-Ethics/ | accessdate = 2011-06-11 | origyear = 1914 cite book | author = Institution of Civil Engineers | authorlink= Institution of Civil Engineers | year = 2009 | title = Royal Charter, By-laws, Regulations and Rules | url = http://www.ice.org.uk/getattachment/c0b1371e-5179-49da-8e5f-62a6abe0b9fd/ICE-Royal-Charter,-By-laws,-Regulations-and-Rules.aspx | accessdate = 2011-06-11 cite book | author = National Society of Professional Engineers | authorlink = National Society of Professional Engineers | year = 2007 | title = Code of Ethics | publisher = NSPE | location = Alexandria, Virginia, USA | url = http://www.nspe.org/resources/pdfs/Ethics/CodeofEthics/Code-2007-July.pdf | accessdate = 2006-10-20 | origyear = 1964
Some graduates of engineering programs in North America may be recognized by the Iron Ring or Engineer's Ring , a ring made of iron or stainless steel that is worn on the little finger of the dominant hand. This tradition began in 1925 in Canada with The Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer , where the ring serves as a symbol and reminder of the engineer's obligations for the engineering profession. In 1972, the practice was adopted by several colleges in the United States including members of the Order of the Engineer .
Education
main|Engineering education Most engineering programs involve a concentration of study in an engineering specialty, along with courses in both mathematics and the physical and life sciences. Many programs also include courses in general engineering. A design course, sometimes accompanied by a computer or laboratory class or both, is part of the curriculum of most programs. Often, general courses not directly related to engineering, such as those in the social sciences or humanities, also are required.
Graduate training is essential for engineering faculty positions and some research and development programs, but is not required for the majority of entry-level engineering jobs. Many experienced engineers obtain graduate degrees in engineering or business administration to learn new technology and broaden their education. Numerous high-level executives in government and industry began their careers as engineers.
Educational accreditation|Accreditation is the process by which engineering program are evaluated by an external body to determine if applicable standards are met. The Washington Accord serves as an international accreditation agreement for academic engineering degrees, recognizing the substantial equivalency in the standards set by many major national engineering bodies. In the United States, post-secondary degree programs in engineering are accredited by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology . In much of Europe and the Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth professional accreditation is provided by Engineering society|Engineering Institutions , such as the Institution of Civil Engineers ,the Institution of Mechanical Engineers or the Institution of Engineering and Technology from the United Kingdom.
Regulation
main|Regulation and licensure in engineeringIn many countries, engineering tasks such as the design of bridges, electric power plants, industrial equipment, machine design and chemical plants, must be approved by a licensed professional engineer. Most commonly titled Professional Engineer is a license to practice and is indicated with the use of post-nominal letters ; PE or P.Eng. These are common in North America, European Engineer ( European Engineer|Eur Ing ) in Europe. The practice of engineering in the UK is not a regulated profession other than the control of the titles of Chartered Engineer (CEng) and Incorporated Engineer (IEng). The title CEng is in use in much of the Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth . Many engineers in the UK also include semi skilled trades to engineering technicians. This is seen by some as a misuse of the title, giving a false image of the profession. A growing movement in the UK is to legally protect the title 'Engineer' so that only professional engineers can use it, a DirectGov petition , http://epetitions.direct.gov.uk/petitions/6271 has been started to further this cause.
In the United States, licensure is generally attainable through combination of education , pre-examination ( Fundamentals of Engineering exam ), examination (Professional Engineering Exam), http://www.ncees.org/ NCEES is a national nonprofit organization dedicated to advancing professional licensure for engineers and surveyors. and engineering experience (typically in the area of 5+ years). Each state tests and licenses Professional Engineer s. Currently most states do not license by specific engineering discipline, but rather provide generalized licensure, and trust engineers to use professional judgement regarding their individual competencies; this is the favoured approach of the professional societies. Despite this, however, at least one of the examinations required by most states is actually focused on a particular discipline; candidates for licensure typically choose the category of examination which comes closest to their respective expertise.
In Canada, the profession in each province is governed by its own engineering association. For instance, in the Province of British Columbia an engineering graduate with four or more years of post graduate experience in an engineering-related field and passing exams in ethics and law will need to be registered by the Association for Professional Engineers and Geoscientists ( APEGBC ) http://www.apeg.bc.ca/ APEGBC - Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of BC in order to become a Professional Engineer and be granted the professional designation of P.Eng allowing one to practice engineering.
In Continental Europe , Latin America , Turkey and elsewhere the title is limited by law to people with an engineering degree and the use of the title by others is illegal. In Italy , the title is limited to people who both hold an engineering degree and have passed a professional qualification examination ( Esame di Stato ). In Portugal , professional engineer titles and accredited engineering degrees are regulated and certified by the Ordem dos Engenheiros . In the Czech Republic , the title "engineer" (Ing.) is given to people with a (masters) degree in chemistry, technology or economics for historical and traditional reasons. In Greece , the academic title of "Diploma Engineer" is awarded after completion of the five-year engineering study course and the title of "Certified Engineer" is awarded after completion of the four-year course of engineering studies at a Technological Educational Institute (TEI).
Perception
The perception of engineering varies across countries and continents. In the United States, continental western Europe, eastern Europe, Asia, the Middle East, Latin American and Canada engineering and engineers are held in very high esteem. British school children in the 1950s were brought up with stirring tales of 'the Victorian Engineers', chief amongst whom were the Isambard Kingdom Brunel|Brunels , the George Stephenson|Stephensons , Thomas Telford|Telford and their contemporaries. In Canada, a 2002 study by the Ontario Society of Professional Engineers revealed that engineers are the third most respected professionals behind doctors and pharmacists.Ontario Society of Professional Engineers, 2002, http://www.ospe.on.ca/pdf/Newsletter-Feb-2002.pdf Engineering: One of Ontario's most respected professions In the Indian subcontinent , Russia and China , engineering is one of the most sought after undergraduate courses, inviting thousands of applicants to show their ability in highly competitive entrance examinations. In Egypt , the Education in Egypt|educational system makes engineering the second-most-respected profession in the country (after medicine); engineering colleges at Egyptian universities require extremely high marks on the General Certificate of Secondary Education (lang-ar|???????? ?????? al-Thanawiyyah al-`Ammah )& mdash;on the order of 97 or 98%& mdash;and are thus considered (with colleges of medicine, natural science, and pharmacy) to be among the "pinnacle colleges" (lang|ar|????? ????? kulliyat al-qimmah ).
The definition of what engineering is varies across countries. In the UK "engineering" is defined as an industry sector consisting of employers and employees loosely termed as "engineers" who range from semi skilled trades to chartered engineers. In the US and Canada, engineering is defined as a regulated profession whose practice and practitioners are licensed and governed by law. In some English speaking countries engineering has been seen as a somewhat dry, uninteresting field in popular culture and has also been thought to be the domain of nerd s.David Anderegg. Nerds: who they are and why we need more of them . Jeremy P. Tarcher, 2008 For example, the cartoon character Dilbert is an engineer. In science fiction , engineers are often portrayed as highly knowledgeable and respectable individuals who understand the overwhelming future technologies often portrayed in the genre. Several Star Trek characters are engineers. One difficulty in increasing public awareness of the profession is that average people, in the typical run of ordinary life, do not ever have any personal dealings with engineers, even though they benefit from their work every day. By contrast, it is common to visit a doctor at least once a year, the accountant at tax time, the pharmacist for drugs, and, occasionally, even a lawyer.
In companies and other organizations in the UK there is a tendency to undervalue people with advanced technological and scientific skills compared to celebrities, fashion practitioners, entertainers and Management|managers . In his book The Mythical Man-Month ,The Mythical Man-Month: Essays on Software Engineering, p119 (see also p242), Frederick P. Brooks, Jr., University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2nd ed. 1995, pub. Addison-Wesley Fred Brooks Jr says that managers think of senior people as "too valuable" for technical tasks, and that management jobs carry higher prestige. He tells how some laboratories, such as Bell Labs, abolish all job titles to overcome this problem: a professional employee is a "member of the technical staff." IBM maintain a dual ladder of advancement; the corresponding managerial and engineering / scientific rungs are equivalent. Brooks recommends that structures need to be changed; the boss must give a great deal of attention to keeping his managers and his technical people as interchangeable as their talents allow.
