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Biography

The horse ( Equus ferus caballus ) is one of two Extant taxon|extant subspecies of Equus ferus , or the wild horse . It is an odd-toed ungulate mammal belonging to the taxonomic family Equidae . The horse has evolution of the horse|evolved over the past 45 to 55& nbsp;million years from a Hyracotherium|small multi-toed creature into the large, single-toed animal of today. Humans began to Domestication|domesticate horses around 4000 BC, and their domestication of the horse|domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BC. Horses in the subspecies caballus are domesticated, although some domesticated populations live in the wild as feral horses . These feral populations are not true wild horse s, as this term is used to describe horses that have never been domesticated, such as the endangered Przewalski's Horse , a separate subspecies, and the only remaining true wild horse . There is an extensive, specialized vocabulary used to describe equine-related concepts, covering everything from anatomy to life stages, size, equine coat color|colors , horse markings|markings , horse breed|breeds , animal locomotion|locomotion , and behavior.

Horses' anatomy enables them to make use of speed to escape predators and they have a well-developed Equilibrioception|sense of balance and a strong Fight-or-flight response|fight-or-flight instinct. Related to this need to flee from predators in the wild is an unusual trait: horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down. Female horses, called mare s, carry their young for approximately 11& nbsp;months, and a young horse, called a foal , can stand and run shortly following birth. Most domesticated horses begin training under saddle or in Horse harness|harness between the ages of two and four. They reach full adult development by age five, and have an average lifespan of between 25 and 30& nbsp;years.

Horse breeds are loosely divided into three categories based on general temperament: spirited "hot bloods" with speed and endurance; "cold bloods", such as draft horse s and some Pony|ponies , suitable for slow, heavy work; and " warmblood s", developed from crosses between hot bloods and cold bloods, often focusing on creating breeds for specific riding purposes, particularly in Europe. There are more than 300& nbsp;breeds of horses in the world today, developed for many different uses.

Horses and humans interact in a wide variety of sport competitions and non-competitive recreational pursuits, as well as in working activities such as Mounted police|police work , working animal|agriculture , entertainment, and hippotherapy|therapy . Horses were historically used in warfare, from which a wide variety of equestrianism|riding and driving (horse)|driving techniques developed, using many different styles of Horse tack|equipment and methods of control. Many products are derived from horses, including meat, milk, hide, hair, bone, and pharmaceuticals extracted from the urine of pregnant mares. Humans provide domesticated horses with food, water and shelter, as well as attention from specialists such as veterinarian s and farrier s.

Biology

Specific terms and specialized language are used to describe equine anatomy , different life stages, colors and breeds.

Lifespan and life stages

Depending on breed, horse management|management and environment, the modern domestic horse has a life expectancy of 25 to 30& nbsp;years. Uncommonly, a few animals live into their 40s and, occasionally, beyond. The oldest verifiable record was " Old Billy ", a 19th-century horse that lived to the age of 62. In modern times, Sugar Puff, who had been listed in the Guinness World Records|Guinness Book of World Records as the world's oldest living pony, died in 2007 at age 56.

Regardless of a horse or pony's actual birth date, for most competition purposes a year is added to its age each January& nbsp;1 of each year in the Northern HemisphereBritish Horse Society The Manual of Horsemanship of the British Horse Society p. 255 and each August& nbsp;1 in the Southern Hemisphere. The exception is in endurance riding , where the minimum age to compete is based on the animal's actual calendar age.

The following terminology is used to describe horses of various ages:

Foal : a horse of either sex less than one year old. A nursing foal is sometimes called a suckling and a foal that has been weaned is called a weanling .Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship p. 418 Most domesticated foals are weaned at five to seven months of age, although foals can be weaned at four months with no adverse physical effects.Giffen, et al. ''Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook p. 431

Yearling (horse)|Yearling : a horse of either sex that is between one and two years old.Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship p. 430

Colt (horse)|Colt : a male horse under the age of four.Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship p. 415 A common terminology error is to call any young horse a "colt", when the term actually only refers to young male horses.Becker, et al. Why Do Horses Sleep Standing Up? p. 23

Filly : a female horse under the age of four.

Mare : a female horse four years old and older.Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship p. 422

Stallion : a non-castrated male horse four years old and older.Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship p. 427 The term "horse" is sometimes used colloquially to refer specifically to a stallion.Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship p. 420

Gelding : a castration|castrated male horse of any age.

In horse racing , these definitions may differ: For example, in the British Isles, Thoroughbred horse racing defines colts and fillies as less than five years old. However, Australian Thoroughbred racing defines colts and fillies as less than four years old.

Size and measurement

The height of horses is measured at the highest point of the withers , where the neck meets the back (horse)|back .Whitaker and Whitelaw The Horse p. 77 This point is used because it is a stable point of the anatomy, unlike the head or neck, which move up and down in relation to the body of the horse.

The English-speaking world measures the height of horses in Hand (length)|hands and inches: one hand is equal to . The height is expressed as the number of full hands, followed by a radix point|point , then the number of additional inches, and ending with the abbreviation "h" or "hh" (for "hands high"). Thus, a horse described as "15.2 h" is 15 hands plus 2& nbsp;inches, for a total of in height.Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship p. 51

The size of horses varies by breed, but also is influenced by equine nutrition|nutrition . Light riding horses usually range in height from and can weigh from .Bongianni ''Simon & Schuster's Guide to Horses & Ponies of the World entry 1,68,69 Larger riding horses usually start at about and often are as tall as , weighing from .Bongianni Simon & Schuster's Guide to Horses & Ponies of the World entry 12,30,31,32,75 Heavy or draft horse s are usually at least high and can be as tall as high. They can weigh from about .Bongianni Simon & Schuster's Guide to Horses & Ponies of the World entry 86, 96, 97

The largest horse in recorded history was probably a Shire horse named Sampson (horse)|Mammoth , who was born in 1848. He stood 21.2½ hands high (), and his peak weight was estimated at .Whitaker and Whitelaw The Horse p. 60 The current record holder for the world's smallest horse is Thumbelina (horse)|Thumbelina , a fully mature miniature horse affected by dwarfism . She is tall and weighs .

Ponies

Ponies are taxonomy|taxonomically the same animals as horses. The distinction between a horse and pony is commonly drawn on the basis of height, especially for competition purposes. However, height alone is not dispositive; the difference between horses and ponies may also include aspects of phenotype , including conformation and temperament.

The traditional standard for height of a horse or a pony at maturity is . An animal 14.2& nbsp;h or over is usually considered to be a horse and one less than 14.2& nbsp;h a pony,Ensminger Horses and Tack pp. 11–12 but there are many exceptions to the traditional standard. In Australia, ponies are considered to be those under ,Howlett Ponies in Australia p. 14 For competition in the western riding|Western division of the United States Equestrian Federation , the cutoff is The International Federation for Equestrian Sports , the world governing body for horse sport, uses metric system|metric measurements and defines a pony as being any horse measuring less than at the withers without shoes, which is just over 14.2 h, and , or just over 14.2½ h, with shoes.

Height is not the sole criterion for distinguishing horses from ponies. Breed registry|Breed registries for horses that typically produce individuals both under and over 14.2& nbsp;h consider all animals of that breed to be horses regardless of their height.For example, the Missouri Fox Trotter , or the Arabian horse . See McBane The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Horse Breeds pp. 192, 218 Conversely, some pony breeds may have features in common with horses, and individual animals may occasionally mature at over 14.2& nbsp;h, but are still considered to be ponies.For example, the Welsh Pony . See McBane The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Horse Breeds pp. 52–63

Ponies often exhibit thicker manes, tails, and overall coat. They also have proportionally shorter legs, wider barrels, heavier bone, shorter and thicker necks, and short heads with broad foreheads. They may have calmer temperaments than horses and also a high level of equine intelligence that may or may not be used to cooperate with human handlers. Small size, by itself, is not an exclusive determinant. For example, the Shetland pony which averages , is considered a pony.Ensminger Horses and Tack p. 12 Conversely, breeds such as the Falabella and other miniature horse s, which can be no taller than , are classified by their breed registry|registries as very small horses, not ponies.McBane The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Horse Breeds p. 200

Colors and markings

Horses exhibit a diverse array of Equine coat color|coat colors and distinctive horse markings|markings , described by a specialized vocabulary. Often, a horse is classified first by its coat color, before breed or sex.Vogel The Complete Horse Care Manual p. 14 Horses of the same color may be distinguished from one another by white horse markings|markings ,Mills, et al. A Basic Guide to Horse Care and Management pp. 72–73 which, along with various spotting patterns, are inherited separately from coat color.

Many Equine coat color genetics|genes that create horse coat colors and patterns have been identified. Current genetic tests can identify at least 13 different allele s influencing coat color, and research continues to discover new genes linked to specific traits. The basic coat colors of chestnut (coat)|chestnut and black (horse)|black are determined by the gene controlled by the Melanocortin 1 receptor , also known as the "extension gene" or "red factor," as its recessive form is "red" (chestnut) and its dominant form is black. Additional gene s control suppression of black color to point coloration that results in a bay (horse)|bay , spotting patterns such as pinto horse|pinto or leopard complex|leopard , dilution gene s such as palomino or dun gene|dun , as well as gray (horse)|graying , and all the other factors that create the many possible coat colors found in horses.

Horses which have a white coat color are often mislabeled; a horse that looks "white" is usually a middle-aged or older gray (horse)|gray . Grays are born a darker shade, get lighter as they age, but usually keep black skin underneath their white hair coat (with the exception of pink skin under white horse markings|markings ). The only horses properly called white (horse)|white are born with a predominantly white hair coat and pink skin, a fairly rare occurrence. Different and unrelated Genetics|genetic factors can produce white coat colors in horses, including several different alleles of dominant white and the sabino horse|sabino-1 gene . However, there are no " Albinism|albino " horses, defined as having both pink skin and red eyes.

Reproduction and development

Gestation lasts approximately 340& nbsp;days, with an average range 320–370 days,Ensminger, Horses and Horsemanship p. 156 and usually results in one foal ; twins are rare. Horses are a precocial species, and foals are capable of standing and running within a short time following birth.Miller Revolution pp. 102–103 Foals are usually born in the spring. The estrous cycle of a mare occurs roughly every 19–22 days and occurs from early spring into autumn. Most mares enter an anestrus period during the winter and thus do not cycle in this period.Ensminger, M. E. Horses and Horsemanship", p. 150 Foals are generally weaning|weaned from their mothers between four and six months of age.

Horses, particularly colts, sometimes are physically capable of reproduction at about 18& nbsp;months, but domesticated horses are rarely allowed to breed before the age of three, especially females.Ensminger, Horses and Tack , p. 129 Horses four years old are considered mature, although the skeleton normally continues to develop until the age of six; maturation also depends on the horse's size, breed, sex, and quality of care. Larger horses have larger bones; therefore, not only do the bones take longer to form Osseous tissue|bone tissue , but the epiphyseal plate s are larger and take longer to convert from cartilage to bone. These plates convert after the other parts of the bones, and are crucial to development.

Depending on maturity, breed, and work expected, horses are usually put under saddle and horse training|trained to be ridden between the ages of two and four.Thomas ''Storey's Guide to Training Horses p. 163 Although Thoroughbred Horse racing|race horses are put on the track as young as the age of two in some countries, horses specifically bred for sports such as dressage are generally not put under saddle until they are three or four years old, because their bones and muscles are not solidly developed.Bryant The USDF Guide to Dressage pp. 271–272 For endurance riding competition, horses are not deemed mature enough to compete until they are a full 60& nbsp;calendar months (five years) old.

Anatomy

Skeletal system

The horse skeleton averages 205 bones.Evans The Horse p. 90 A significant difference between the horse skeleton and that of a human is the lack of a Clavicle|collarbone —the horse's Equine forelimb anatomy|forelimbs are attached to the Vertebral column|spinal column by a powerful set of muscles, tendons, and ligaments that attach the Scapula|shoulder blade to the torso. The horse's legs and hooves are also unique structures. Their leg bones are proportioned differently from those of a human. For example, the body part that is called a horse's "knee" is actually made up of the Carpus|carpal bones that correspond to the human wrist . Similarly, the hock (zoology)|hock contains bones equivalent to those in the human ankle and heel . The lower leg bones of a horse correspond to the bones of the human hand or foot, and the Equine anatomy|fetlock (incorrectly called the "ankle") is actually the proximal sesamoid bone s between the Equine anatomy|cannon bones (a single equivalent to the human Metacarpus|metacarpal or Metatarsus|metatarsal bones) and the proximal phalanges , located where one finds the "knuckles" of a human. A horse also has no muscles in its legs below the knees and hocks, only skin, hair, bone, tendon s, ligament s, cartilage , and the assorted specialized tissues that make up the horse hoof|hoof .Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship pp. 21–25

Hooves

The critical importance of the feet and legs is summed up by the traditional adage, "no foot, no horse".Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship p. 367 The horse hoof begins with the distal phalanges , the equivalent of the human fingertip or tip of the toe, surrounded by cartilage and other specialized, blood-rich soft tissues such as the Horse hoof#Internal structures|laminae . The exterior hoof wall and horn of the sole is made of essentially the same material as a human Nail (anatomy)|fingernail .Giffin ''Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook p. 304 The end result is that a horse, weighing on average ,Giffin Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook p. 457 travels on the same bones as would a human on tiptoe. For the protection of the hoof under certain conditions, some horses have horseshoe s placed on their feet by a professional farrier . The hoof continually grows, and in most domesticated horses needs to be trimmed (and horseshoes reset, if used) every five to eight weeks,Giffin Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook pp. 310–312 though the hooves of horses in the wild wear down and regrow at a rate suitable for their terrain.

Teeth

Horses are adapted to grazing . In an adult horse, there are 12& nbsp; incisor s at the front of the mouth, adapted to biting off the grass or other vegetation. There are 24& nbsp;teeth adapted for chewing, the premolar s and Molar (tooth)|molars , at the back of the mouth. Stallions and geldings have four additional teeth just behind the incisors, a type of Canine tooth|canine teeth called "tushes". Some horses, both male and female, will also develop one to four very small Vestigiality|vestigial teeth in front of the molars, known as "wolf" teeth, which are generally removed because they can interfere with the bit (horse)|bit . There is an empty interdental space between the incisors and the molars where the bit rests directly on the gums, or "bars" of the horse's mouth when the horse is bridle d.Kreling ''Horses' Teeth and Their Problems pp. 12–13

An estimate of a horse's age can be made from looking at its teeth. The teeth continue to erupt throughout life and are worn down by grazing. Therefore, the incisors show changes as the horse ages; they develop a distinct wear pattern, changes in tooth shape, and changes in the angle at which the chewing surfaces meet. This allows a very rough estimate of a horse's age, although diet and veterinary care can also affect the rate of tooth wear.Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship pp. 46–50

Digestion

Horses are herbivore s with a digestive system adapted to a forage diet of grasses and other plant material, consumed steadily throughout the day. Therefore, compared to humans, they have a relatively small stomach but very long intestines to facilitate a steady flow of nutrients. A horse will eat of food per day and, under normal use, drink to of water . Horses are not ruminant s, so they have only one stomach, like humans, but unlike humans, they can digest cellulose , a major component of grass. Cellulose digestion occurs in the cecum , or "water gut", which food goes through before reaching the large intestine . Horses cannot Vomiting|vomit , so digestion problems can quickly cause horse colic|colic , a leading cause of death.Giffin ''Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook p. 175

Senses

The horse's senses are generally superior to those of a human. As predation|prey animals , they must be aware of their surroundings at all times.Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship pp. 309–310 They have the largest eyes of any land mammal,Sellnow Happy Trails p. 46 and are lateral-eyed, meaning that their eyes are positioned on the sides of their heads. This means that horses have a range of vision of more than 350°, with approximately 65° of this being binocular vision and the remaining 285° monocular vision . Horses have excellent day and night vision , but they have two-color, or Dichromacy|dichromatic vision ; their color vision is somewhat like Red–green color blindness|red-green color blindness in humans, where certain colors, especially red and related colors, appear as a shade of green.

A horse's hearing is good, and the Pinna (anatomy)|pinna of each ear can rotate up to 180°, giving the potential for 360° hearing without having to move the head.Myers Horse Safe p.7 Their Olfaction|sense of smell , while much better than that of humans, is not their strongest asset; they rely to a greater extent on vision.

Horses have a great sense of balance, due partly to their ability to feel their footing and partly to highly developed proprioception —the unconscious sense of where the body and limbs are at all times. A horse's Somatosensory system|sense of touch is well developed. The most sensitive areas are around the eyes, ears, and nose. Horses sense contact as subtle as an insect landing anywhere on the body.Hairston, et al. The Essentials of Horsekeeping p. 77

Horses have an advanced sense of taste that allows them to sort through fodder to choose what they would most like to eat,Miller ''Understanding the Ancient Secrets of the Horse's Mind p. 28 and their Prehensility|prehensile lips can easily sort even the smallest grains. Horses generally will not eat poisonous plants. However, there are exceptions and horses will occasionally eat toxic amounts of poisonous plants even when there is adequate healthy food.

Movement

All horses move naturally with four basic horse gait|gaits : the four-beat Horse gait#Walk|walk , which averages ; the two-beat Trot (horse gait)|trot or jog at (faster for harness racing horses); the Canter|canter or lope , a three-beat gait that is ; and the Horse gallop|gallop .Harris Horse Gaits, Balance and Movement p. 32 The gallop averages ,Harris Horse Gaits, Balance and Movement pp.& nbsp;47–49 but the world record for a horse galloping over a short, sprint distance is . Besides these basic gaits, some horses perform a two-beat Pacing (horse gait)|pace , instead of the trot.Harris Horse Gaits, Balance and Movement p. 50 There also are several four-beat " ambling " gaits that are approximately the speed of a trot or pace, though smoother to ride. These include the lateral Ambling#Rack|rack , Ambling|running walk , and tölt as well as the diagonal Fox trot (gait)|fox trot . Ambling gaits are often genetic in some breeds, known collectively as gaited horse s. Often, gaited horses replace the trot with one of the ambling gaits.Harris Horse Gaits, Balance and Movement pp. 50–55

Behavior

Horses are prey animals with a strong fight-or-flight response . Their first reaction to threat is to startle and usually flee, although they will stand their ground and defend themselves when flight is impossible or if their young are threatened. They also tend to be curious; when startled, they will often hesitate an instant to ascertain the cause of their fright, and may not always flee from something that they perceive as non-threatening. Most light horse riding breeds were developed for speed, agility, alertness and endurance; natural qualities that extend from their wild ancestors. However, through selective breeding, some breeds of horses are quite docile, particularly certain draft horses.McBane A Natural Approach to Horse Management pp. 226–228 Horses are herd animal s, with a clear hierarchy of rank, led by a dominant individual, usually a mare. They are also social creatures that are able to form companionship attachments to their own species and to other animals, including humans. They communicate in various ways, including vocalizations such as nickering or whinnying, mutual Social grooming|grooming , and body language . Many horses will become difficult to manage if they are isolated, but with training, horses can learn to accept a human as a companion, and thus be comfortable away from other horses.Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship pp. 305–309 However, when confined with insufficient companionship, exercise, or stimulation, individuals may develop stable vices , an assortment of bad habits, mostly Stereotypy (non-human)|stereotypies of psychological origin, that include wood chewing, wall kicking, "weaving" (rocking back and forth), and other problems.Prince Basic Horsemanship pp. 214–223

Intelligence and learning

In the past, horses were considered unintelligent, with no concept|abstract thinking ability, unable to generalize, and driven primarily by a herd mentality . However, modern studies show that they perform a number of Cognition|cognitive tasks on a daily basis, meeting mental challenges that include foraging|food procurement and Social structure|social system identification. They also have good Spatial visualization ability|spatial discrimination abilities. Studies have assessed equine intelligence in the realms of problem solving , learning speed, and knowledge retention. Results show that horses excel at simple learning, but also are able to solve advanced cognitive challenges that involve categorization and concept learning . They learn from habituation , Desensitization (psychology)|desensitization , Classical conditioning|Pavlovian conditioning , and operant conditioning . They respond to and learn from both positive and negative reinforcement . Recent studies even suggest horses are able to count if the quantity involved is less than four.

Domesticated horses tend to face greater mental challenges than wild horses, because they live in artificial environments that stifle instinct ive behavior while learning tasks that are not natural. Horses are creatures of Habit (psychology)|habit that respond and adapt well to regimentation, and respond best when the same routines and techniques are used consistently. Some trainers believe that "intelligent" horses are reflections of intelligent trainers who effectively use response conditioning techniques and positive reinforcement to train in the style that fits best with an individual animal's natural inclinations. Others who handle horses regularly note that personality also may play a role separate from intelligence in determining how a given animal responds to various experiences.

Temperament

Horses are mammal s, and as such are " warm-blooded " creatures, as opposed to Poikilotherm|cold-blooded reptile s. However, these words have developed a separate meaning in the context of equine terminology, used to describe temperament, not Thermoregulation|body temperature . For example, the "hot-bloods", such as many horse racing|race horses , exhibit more sensitivity and energy,Belknap Horsewords p. 255 while the "cold-bloods", such as most draft horse|draft breeds , are quieter and calmer.Belknap Horsewords p. 112 Sometimes "hot-bloods" are classified as "light horses" or "riding horses",Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship pp. 71–73 with the "cold-bloods" classified as "draft horses" or "work horses".Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship p. 84

"Hot blooded" breeds include " oriental horse s" such as the Akhal-Teke , Arabian horse , Barb (horse)|Barb and now-extinct Turkoman horse , as well as the Thoroughbred , a breed developed in England from the older oriental breeds. Hot bloods tend to be spirited, bold, and learn quickly. They are bred for agility and speed. They tend to be physically refined—thin-skinned, slim, and long-legged.DeFilippis The Everything Horse Care Book p. 4 The original oriental breeds were brought to Europe from the Middle East and North Africa when European breeders wished to infuse these traits into racing and light cavalry horses.Whitaker and Whitelaw The Horse p. 43Whitaker and Whitelaw The Horse pp. 194–197

Muscular, heavy draft horse s are known as "cold bloods", as they are bred not only for strength, but also to have the calm, patient temperament needed to pull a plow or a heavy carriage full of people. They are sometimes nicknamed "gentle giants".Price Whole Horse Catalog p. 15 Well-known draft breeds include the Belgian (horse)|Belgian and the Clydesdale (horse)|Clydesdale . Some, like the Percheron , are lighter and livelier, developed to pull carriages or to plow large fields in drier climates.Bongianni ''Simon & Schuster's Guide to Horses & Ponies of the World entry 87 Others, such as the Shire horse|Shire , are slower and more powerful, bred to plow fields with heavy, clay-based soils.Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship pp. 124–125 The cold-blooded group also includes some pony breeds.

" Warmblood " breeds, such as the Trakehner or Hanoverian (horse)|Hanoverian , developed when European carriage and horses in warfare|war horses were crossed with Arabians or Thoroughbreds, producing a riding horse with more refinement than a draft horse, but greater size and milder temperament than a lighter breed.Edwards The Encyclopedia of the Horse pp. 122–123 Certain pony breeds with warmblood characteristics have been developed for smaller riders.Examples are the Australian Riding Pony and the Connemara pony|Connemara , see Edwards The Encyclopedia of the Horse pp. 178–179, 208–209 Warmbloods are considered a "light horse" or "riding horse".

Today, the term "Warmblood" refers to a specific subset of sport horse breeds that are used for competition in dressage and show jumping .Price et al. ''Lyons Press Horseman's Dictionary p. 231 Strictly speaking, the term " Warmblood|warm blood " refers to any crossbreeding|cross between cold-blooded and hot-blooded breeds.Belknap Horsewords p. 523 Examples include breeds such as the Irish Draught or the Cleveland Bay . The term was once used to refer to breeds of light riding horse other than Thoroughbreds or Arabians, such as the Morgan horse .Price, et al. Whole Horse Catalog p. 18

Sleep patterns

Horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down. In an adaptation from life in the wild, horses are able to enter light sleep by using a "stay apparatus" in their legs, allowing them to doze without collapsing. Horses sleep better when in groups because some animals will sleep while others stand guard to watch for predators. A horse kept alone will not sleep well because its instinct s are to keep a constant eye out for danger.

Unlike humans, horses do not sleep in a solid, unbroken period of time, but take many short periods of rest. Horses spend four to fifteen hours a day in standing rest, and from a few minutes to several hours lying down. Total sleep time in a 24-hour period may range from several minutes to a couple of hours, mostly in short intervals of about 15& nbsp;minutes each.Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship p. 310. The average sleep time of a domestic horse is said to be 2.9 hours per day.

Horses must lie down to reach Rapid eye movement sleep|REM sleep . They only have to lie down for an hour or two every few days to meet their minimum REM sleep requirements. However, if a horse is never allowed to lie down, after several days it will become sleep-deprived, and in rare cases may suddenly collapse as it involuntarily slips into REM sleep while still standing. This condition differs from narcolepsy , although horses may also suffer from that disorder.Smith Large Animal Internal Medicine pp. 1086–1087

Taxonomy and evolution

The horse adapted to survive in areas of wide-open terrain with sparse vegetation, surviving in an ecosystem where other large grazing animals, especially ruminant s, could not.Budiansky The Nature of Horses p. 31 Horses and other equids are odd-toed ungulate s of the Order (biology)|order Odd-toed ungulate|Perissodactyla , a group of mammals that was dominant during the Tertiary period. In the past, this order contained 14& nbsp; Family (biology)|families , but only three— Equidae (the horse and related species), the tapir , and the rhinoceros —have survived to the present day.

The earliest known member of the Equidae family was the Hyracotherium , which lived between 45 and 55& nbsp;million years ago, during the Eocene period. It had 4& nbsp;toes on each front foot, and 3& nbsp;toes on each back foot. The extra toe on the front feet soon disappeared with the Mesohippus , which lived 32 to 37& nbsp;million years ago. Over time, the extra side toes shrank in size until they vanished. All that remains of them in modern horses is a set of small Vestigiality|vestigial bones on the leg below the knee, known informally as splint bones.Miller ''Understanding the Ancient Secrets of the Horse's Mind p. 20 Their legs also lengthened as their toes disappeared until they were a hooved animal capable of running at great speed. By about 5& nbsp;million years ago, the modern Equus had evolved. Equid teeth also evolved from browsing on soft, tropical plants to adapt to browsing of drier plant material, then to grazing of tougher plains grasses. Thus proto-horses changed from leaf-eating forest-dwellers to grass-eating inhabitants of semi-arid regions worldwide, including the steppe s of Eurasia and the Great Plains of North America.

By about 15,000 years ago, Equus ferus was a widespread holarctic species. Horse bones from this time period, the late Pleistocene , are found in Europe, Eurasia, Beringia , and North America. Yet between 10,000 and 7,600 years ago, the horse became extinct in North America and rare elsewhere. The reasons for this extinction are not fully known, but one theory notes that extinction in North America paralleled human arrival. Another theory points to climate change, noting that approximately 12,500 years ago, the grasses characteristic of a steppe ecosystem gave way to shrub tundra , which was covered with unpalatable plants.

Wild species surviving into modern times

A truly wild horse is a species or subspecies with no ancestors that were ever domesticated. Therefore, most "wild" horses today are actually feral horse s, animals that escaped or were turned loose from domestic herds and the descendants of those animals.Olsen "Horse Hunters of the Ice Age" Horses Through Time p. 46 Only two never-domesticated subspecies, the Tarpan and the Przewalski's Horse , survived into recorded history and only the latter survives today.

The Przewalski's Horse ( Equus ferus przewalskii ), named after the Russian explorer Nikolai Przhevalsky , is a rare Asian animal. It is also known as the Mongolian Wild Horse; Mongolia n people know it as the taki , and the Kyrgyz people call it a kirtag . The subspecies was presumed extinct in the wild between 1969 and 1992, while a small breeding population survived in zoos around the world. In 1992, it was reestablished in the wild due to the conservation efforts of numerous zoos. Today, a small wild breeding population exists in Mongolia.Dohner "Equines: Natural History" Encyclopedia of Historic Livestock and Poultry Breeds pp. 298–299 There are additional animals still maintained at zoos throughout the world.

The Tarpan or European Wild Horse ( Equus ferus ferus ) was found in Europe and much of Asia. It survived into the historical era, but became Extinction|extinct in 1909, when the last captive died in a Russian zoo.Dohner "Equines: Natural History" Encyclopedia of Historic Livestock and Poultry Breeds p. 300 Thus, the genetic line was lost. Attempts have been made to recreate the Tarpan, which resulted in horses with outward physical similarities, but nonetheless descended from domesticated ancestors and not true wild horses.

Periodically, populations of horses in isolated areas are speculated to be relict populations of wild horses, but generally have been proven to be feral or domestic. For example, the Riwoche horse of Tibet was proposed as such, but testing did not reveal genetic differences with domesticated horses.Peissel Tibet p. 36 Similarly, the Sorraia of Portugal was proposed as a direct descendant of the Tarpan based on shared characteristics,Edwards The Encyclopedia of the Horse pp. 104–105 but genetic studies have shown that the Sorraia is more closely related to other horse breeds and that the outward similarity is an unreliable measure of relatedness.

Other modern equids

Besides the horse, there are seven other species of genus Equus in the Equidae family . These are the ass or donkey , Equus asinus ; the mountain zebra , Equus zebra ; plains zebra , Equus quagga ; Grévy's Zebra|Grévy's zebra , Equus grevyi ; the kiang , Equus kiang ; and the onager , Equus hemionus .

Horses can crossbreed with other members of their genus. The most common Hybrid (biology)|hybrid is the mule , a cross between a "jack" (male donkey) and a mare . A related hybrid, a hinny , is a cross between a stallion and a jenny (donkey)|jenny (female donkey). Other hybrids include the zorse , a cross between a zebra and a horse. With rare exceptions, most hybrids are infertility|sterile and cannot reproduce.

Domestication

Domestication of the horse most likely took place in central Asia prior to 3500 BC. Two major sources of information are used to determine where and when the horse was first domesticated and how the domesticated horse spread around the world. The first source is based on Paleontology|palaeological and archaeological discoveries, the second source is a comparison of DNA obtained from modern horses to that from bones and teeth of ancient horse remains.

The earliest archaeological evidence for the domestication of the horse comes from sites in Ukraine and Kazakhstan , dating to approximately 3500–4000 BC.Outram, A.K., Stear, N.A., Bendrey, R., Olsen, S., Kasparov, A., Zaibert, V., Thorpe, N. and Evershed, R.P. 2009 The Earliest Horse Harnessing and Milking Science. 323(5919): 1332–1335Matossian Shaping World History p. 43 See also: By 3000 BC, the horse was completely domesticated and by 2000 BC there was a sharp increase in the number of horse bones found in human settlements in northwestern Europe, indicating the spread of domesticated horses throughout the continent.Evans Horse Breeding and Management p.56 The most recent, but most irrefutable evidence of domestication comes from sites where horse remains were interred with chariots in graves of the Sintashta and Petrovka settlement|Petrovka cultures c. 2100 BC.

Domestication is also studied by using the genetic material of present day horses and comparing it with the genetic material present in the bones and teeth of horse remains found in archaeological and palaeological excavations. The variation in the genetic material shows that very few wild stallions contributed to the domestic horse, while many mares were part of early domesticated herds. This is reflected in the difference in genetic variation between the DNA that is passed on along the paternal, or sire line ( Y-chromosome ) versus that passed on along the maternal, or dam line ( mitochondrial DNA ). There are very low levels of Y-chromosome variability, but a great deal of genetic variation in mitochondrial DNA. There is also regional variation in mitochondrial DNA due to the inclusion of wild mares in domestic herds. Another characteristic of domestication is an increase in coat color variation.Epstein, H. 1955 Domestication Features in Animals as Functions of Human Society Agricultural History Society. 29(4): 137–146 In horses, this increased dramatically between 5000 and 3000 BC.

Before the availability of DNA techniques to resolve the questions related to the domestication of the horse, various hypothesis were proposed. One classification was based on body types and conformation, suggesting the presence of four basic prototypes that had adapted to their environment prior to domestication.Bennett Conquerors p. 7 Another hypothesis held that the four prototypes originated from a single wild species and that all different body types were entirely a result of selective breeding after domestication.Edwards, G. The Arabian pp 1, 3 However, the lack of a detectable substructure in the horse has resulted in a rejection of both hypotheses.

Feral populations

Feral horses are born and live in the wild, but are descended from domesticated animals. Many populations of feral horse s exist throughout the world.Edwards The Encyclopedia of the Horse p. 291Anthony "Bridling Horse Power: The Domestication of the Horse" Horses Through Time pp. 66–67 Studies of feral herds have provided useful insights into the behavior of prehistoric horses, as well as greater understanding of the instincts and behaviors that drive horses that live in domesticated conditions.

There are also semi-feral horses in many parts of the world, such as Dartmoor and the New Forest in the UK, where the animals are all privately owned but live for significant amounts of time in "wild" conditions on undeveloped, often public, lands. Owners of such animals often pay a fee for grazing rights.Fear New Forest Drift p. 75

Breeds

The concept of purebred bloodstock and a controlled, written breed registry has come to be particularly significant and important in modern times. Sometimes purebred horses are incorrectly or inaccurately called "thoroughbreds". Thoroughbred is a specific breed of horse, while a "purebred" is a horse (or any other animal) with a defined Pedigree chart|pedigree recognized by a breed registry.Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship p. 424 Horse breeds are groups of horses with distinctive characteristics that are transmitted consistently to their offspring, such as equine conformation|conformation , color, performance ability, or disposition. These inherited traits result from a combination of natural crosses and artificial selection methods. Horses have been Selective breeding|selectively bred since their domestication of the horse|domestication . An early example of people who practiced selective horse breeding were the Bedouin , who had a reputation for careful practices, keeping extensive pedigrees of their Arabian horse s and placing great value upon pure bloodlines.Edwards The Arabian pp. 22–23 These pedigrees were originally transmitted via an oral tradition . In the 14th century, Carthusian monks of southern Spain kept meticulous pedigrees of bloodstock lineages still found today in the Andalusian horse .

Breeds developed due to a need for "form to function", the necessity to develop certain characteristics in order to perform a particular type of work.Sponenberg "The Proliferation of Horse Breeds" Horses Through Time p. 155 Thus, thus a powerful but refined breed such as the Andalusian developed as riding horses with an aptitude for dressage . Heavy draft horses developed out of a need to perform demanding farm work and pull heavy wagons.Sponenberg "The Proliferation of Horse Breeds" Horses Through Time pp. 156–57 Other horse breeds developed specifically for light agricultural work, carriage and road work, various sport disciplines, or simply as pets.Sponenberg "The Proliferation of Horse Breeds" Horses Through Time p. 162 Some breeds developed through centuries of crossing other breeds, while others descended from a single foundation bloodstock|foundation sire , or other limited or restricted foundation bloodstock. One of the earliest formal registries was General Stud Book for Thoroughbreds, which began in 1791 and traced back to the foundation bloodstock for the breed. There are more than 300& nbsp;horse breeds in the world today.Hedge Horse Conformation pp. 307–308

Interaction with humans

Worldwide, horses play a role within human cultures and have done so for millennia. Horses are used for leisure activities, sports, and working purposes. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that in 2008, there were almost 59,000,000 horses in the world, with around 33,500,000 in the Americas, 13,800,000 in Asia and 6,300,000 in Europe and smaller portions in Africa and Oceania. There are estimated to be 9,500,000 horses in the United States alone. The American Horse Council estimates that horse-related activities have a direct impact on the economy of the United States of over $39 billion, and when indirect spending is considered, the impact is over $102 billion. In a 2004 "poll" conducted by Animal Planet , more than 50,000 viewers from 73 countries voted for the horse as the world's 4th favorite animal.

Communication between human and horse is paramount in any equestrian activity; to aid this process horses are usually ridden with a saddle on their backs to assist the rider with balance and positioning, and a bridle or related headgear to assist the rider in maintaining control.Edwards Horses pp. 32–34 Sometimes horses are ridden without a saddle,Self Riding Simplified p. 55 and occasionally, horses are trained to perform without a bridle or other headgear.Thorson "Rugged Lark" Legends 7 p. 218 Many horses are also Driving (horse)|driven , which requires a horse harness|harness , bridle, and some type of horse-drawn vehicle|vehicle .Mettler Horse Sense pp. 47–54

Sport

Historically, equestrians honed their skills through games and races. Equestrian sports provided entertainment for crowds and honed the excellent horsemanship that was needed in battle. Many sports, such as dressage , eventing and show jumping , have origins in horses in warfare|military training , which were focused on control and balance of both horse and rider. Other sports, such as rodeo , developed from practical skills such as those needed on working ranch es and Station (Australian agriculture)|stations . Sport hunting from horseback evolved from earlier practical hunting techniques.Olsen "In the Winner's Circle" Horses Through Time pp. 105, 111–113, 121 Horse racing of all types evolved from impromptu competitions between riders or drivers. All forms of competition, requiring demanding and specialized skills from both horse and rider, resulted in the systematic development of specialized breeds and equipment for each sport. The popularity of equestrian sports through the centuries has resulted in the preservation of skills that would otherwise have disappeared after horses stopped being used in combat.Olsen "In the Winner's Circle" Horses Through Time p. 105

Horses are trained to be ridden or driven in a variety of sporting competitions. Examples include show jumping , dressage , three-day eventing , combined driving|competitive driving , endurance riding , Gymkhana (equestrian)|gymkhana , rodeo s, and fox hunting .Edwards The Encyclopedia of the Horse pp. 346–356, 366–371 Horse show s, which have their origins in medieval European fairs, are held around the world. They host a huge range of classes, covering all of the mounted and harness disciplines, as well as halter (horse show)|"In-hand" classes where the horses are led, rather than ridden, to be evaluated on their conformation. The method of judging varies with the discipline, but winning usually depends on style and ability of both horse and rider.Edwards The Encyclopedia of the Horse pp. 376–377
Sports such as polo do not judge the horse itself, but rather use the horse as a partner for human competitors as a necessary part of the game. Although the horse requires specialized training to participate, the details of its performance are not judged, only the result of the rider's actions—be it getting a ball through a goal or some other task.Edwards The Encyclopedia of the Horse p. 360 Examples of these sports of partnership between human and horse include jousting , in which the main goal is for one rider to unseat the other,Collins Encyclopedia of Traditional British Rural Sports pp. 173–174 and buzkashi , a team game played throughout Central Asia , the aim being to capture a goat carcass while on horseback.

Horse racing is an equestrian sport and major international industry, watched in almost every nation of the world. There are three types: "flat" racing; Steeplechase|steeplechasing , i.e. racing over jumps; and harness racing , where horses trot or pace while pulling a driver in a small, light cart known as a sulky .Edwards The Encyclopedia of the Horse pp. 332–337 A major part of horse racing's economic importance lies in the Gambling#Parimutuel betting|gambling associated with it.Campbell National Gambling Impact Study Commission Final Report p. 111

Work

There are certain jobs that horses do very well, and no technology has yet developed to fully replace them. For example, mounted police horses are still effective for certain types of patrol duties and crowd control. Cattle ranch es still require riders on horseback to round up cattle that are scattered across remote, rugged terrain.Edwards The Encyclopedia of the Horse pp. 226–227 Search and rescue organizations in some countries depend upon mounted search and rescue|mounted teams to locate people, particularly hikers and children, and to provide disaster relief assistance. Horses can also be used in areas where it is necessary to avoid vehicular disruption to delicate soil, such as nature reserves. They may also be the only form of transport allowed in wilderness area s. Horses are quieter than motorized vehicles. Law enforcement officer s such as park ranger s or game warden s may use horses for patrols, and horses or mules may also be used for clearing trails or other work in areas of rough terrain where vehicles are less effective.

Although machinery has replaced horses in many parts of the world, an estimated 100& nbsp;million horses, donkeys and mules are still used for agriculture and transportation in less developed areas. This number includes around 27& nbsp;million working in Africa alone. Some land management practices such as cultivating and logging can be efficiently performed with horses. In agriculture, less fossil fuel is used and increased environmental conservation occurs over time with the use of working animal|draft animals such as horses.Gifford "Working Draught Horses as Singles and Pairs" The Working Horse Manual p. 85Miller Work Horse Handbook p. 13 Logging with horses can result in reduced damage to soil structure and less damage to trees due to more selective logging.Gifford "Working Horses in Forestry" The Working Horse Manual p. 145

Entertainment and culture

Modern horses are often used to reenact many of their historical work purposes. Horses are used, complete with equipment that is authentic or a meticulously recreated replica, in various live action historical reenactment s of specific periods of history, especially recreations of famous battles. Horses are also used to preserve cultural traditions and for ceremonial purposes. Countries such as the United Kingdom still use horse-drawn carriages to convey royalty and other VIPs to and from certain culturally significant events. Public exhibitions are another example, such as the Budweiser Clydesdales , seen in parades and other public settings, a team of draft horse s that pull a beer wagon similar to that used before the invention of the modern motorized truck.

Horses are frequently seen in television and films. They are sometimes featured as a major character in films about particular animals, but also used as visual elements that assure the accuracy of historical stories. Both live horses and Secular icon|iconic images of horses are used in advertising to promote a variety of products. The horse frequently appears in coats of arms in heraldry , in a variety of poses and equipment.Fox-Davies A Complete Guide to Heraldry p. 201 The mythology|mythologies of many cultures, including Greco-Roman mythology|Greco-Roman , Hindu mythology|Hindu , Islamic mythology|Islamic , and Norse mythology|Norse , include references to both normal horses and those with wings or additional limbs, and multiple myths also call upon the horse to draw the chariots of the Moon and Sun.Tozer The Horse in History pp. 94, 98–100 The horse also appears in the 12-year cycle of animals in the Chinese astrology|Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar .

Therapeutic use

People of all ages with physical and mental disabilities obtain beneficial results from association with horses. Therapeutic riding is used to mentally and physically stimulate disabled persons and help them improve their lives through improved balance and coordination, increased self-confidence, and a greater feeling of freedom and independence.Bush, et al. The Principles of Teaching Riding p. 58 The benefits of equestrian activity for people with disabilities has also been recognized with the addition of equestrian events to the Paralympic Games and recognition of para-equestrian events by the International Federation for Equestrian Sports (FEI). Hippotherapy and therapeutic horseback riding are names for different physical, occupational, and speech therapy treatment strategies that utilize equine movement. In hippotherapy, a therapist uses the horse's movement to improve their patient's cognitive, coordination, balance, and fine motor skills, whereas therapeutic horseback riding uses specific riding skills.

Horses also provide psychological benefits to people whether they actually ride or not. "Equine-assisted" or "equine-facilitated" therapy is a form of experiential psychotherapy that uses horses as companion animals to assist people with mental illness, including anxiety disorders, psychotic disorders, mood disorders, behavioral difficulties, and those who are going through major life changes. There are also experimental programs using horses in prison settings. Exposure to horses appears to improve the behavior of inmates and help reduce recidivism when they leave.

Warfare

Horses in warfare have been seen for most of recorded history. The first archaeological evidence of horses used in warfare dates to between 4000 to 3000 BC, and the use of horses in warfare was widespread by the end of the Bronze Age .Whitaker and Whitelaw The Horse pp. 30–31 Although mechanization has largely replaced the horse as a weapon of war, horses are still seen today in limited military uses, mostly for ceremonial purposes, or for reconnaissance and transport activities in areas of rough terrain where motorized vehicles are ineffective. Horses have been used in the 21st century by the Janjaweed militias in the War in Darfur .

Products

Horses are raw material for many products made by humans throughout history, including byproducts from the slaughter of horses as well as materials collected from living horses.

Products collected from living horses include mare's milk, used by people with large horse herds, such as the Mongols , who let it ferment to produce kumis . Horse blood was once used as food by the Mongols and other nomad ic tribes, who found it a convenient source of nutrition when traveling. Drinking their own horses' blood allowed the Mongols to ride for extended periods of time without stopping to eat. The drug Premarin is a mixture of estrogen s extracted from the urine of pregnant mares ( pre gnant mar es' ur in e), and was previously a widely used drug for Hormone replacement therapy (menopause)|hormone replacement therapy . The tail hair of horses can be used for making bow (music)|bows for string instrument s such as the violin , viola , cello , and double bass .

Horse meat has been used as food for humans and carnivore|carnivorous animals throughout the ages. It is eaten in many parts of the world, though consumption is taboo in some cultures, and a subject of political controversy in others. Horsehide leather has been used for boots, gloves, A-2 jacket|jackets ,Ockerman Animal By-product Processing & Utilization p. 129 Baseball (ball)|baseballs , and baseball gloves. Horse hooves can also be used to produce animal glue .Bartlett Keeping House pp. 34–35 Horse bones can be used to make implements.MacGregor Bone, Antler, Ivory and Horn p. 31 Specifically, in Italian cuisine, the horse tibia is sharpened into a probe called a spinto , which is used to test the readiness of a (pig) ham as it cures.Fort Eating Up Italy p. 171 In Asia, the saba is a horsehide vessel used in the production of kumis.Hurd Diseases of the Stomach and Intestines p. 29

Care

Horses are grazing animals, and their major source of nutrients is good-quality forage from hay or pasture. They can consume approximately 2% to 2.5% of their body weight in dry feed each day. Therefore, a adult horse could eat up to of food. Sometimes, concentrated feed such as Cereal|grain is fed in addition to pasture or hay, especially when the animal is very active.Giffin ''Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook'' pp. 476–477 When grain is fed, equine nutritionists recommend that 50% or more of the animal's diet by weight should still be forage.

Horses require a plentiful supply of clean water, a minimum of to per day.Giffin ''Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook p. 455 Although horses are adapted to live outside, they require shelter from the wind and Precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation , which can range from a simple shed or shelter to an elaborate stable .Giffin Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook p. 482

Horses require routine horse hoof|hoof care from a farrier , as well as vaccination s to protect against various diseases, and horse teeth|dental examinations from a veterinarian or a specialized equine dentist.Giffin ''Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook pp. 62,168,310 If horses are kept inside in a barn, they require regular daily exercise for their physical health and mental well-being.Harris The United States Pony Club Manual of Horsemanship pp. 160–161 When turned outside, they require well-maintained, sturdy agricultural fencing|fences to be safely contained.Wheeler Horse Stable and Riding Arena Design p. 215 Regular horse grooming|grooming is also helpful to help the horse maintain good health of the hair coat and underlying skin.Giffin Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook p. 90

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