Johann Sebastian Bach

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Biography

Johann Sebastian Bach or (21 March 1685, Old Style and New Style dates|O.S. ^{31 March 1685, Old Style and New Style dates|N.S.} – 28 July 1750, Old Style and New Style dates|N.S. ) was a German composer, organist, harpsichordist, violist, and violinist whose sacred and secular works for choir, orchestra, and solo instruments drew together the strands of the Baroque music|Baroque period and brought it to its ultimate maturity. Although he did not introduce new forms, he enriched the prevailing German style with a robust counterpoint|contrapuntal technique, an unrivalled control of harmonic and Motif (music)|motivic organisation, and the adaptation of rhythms, forms and textures from abroad, particularly from Italy and France.

Revered for their intellectual depth, technical command and artistic beauty, Bach's List of compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach|works include the Brandenburg Concertos , the Goldberg Variations , the Partitas, BWV 825-830|Partitas , The Well-Tempered Clavier , the Mass in B minor , the St Matthew Passion , the St John Passion , the Magnificat (Bach)|Magnificat , the Musical Offering , The Art of Fugue , the English Suites, BWV 806-811|English and French Suites, BWV 812-817|French Suites , the Sonatas and partitas for solo violin (Bach)|Sonatas and Partitas for solo violin , the Cello Suites (Bach)|Cello Suites , more than 200 surviving Bach cantata|cantatas , and a similar number of pipe organ|organ works, including the famous Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565|Toccata and Fugue in D minor and Passacaglia and Fugue in C minor, BWV 582|Passacaglia and Fugue in C minor , and the Great Eighteen Chorale Preludes and Clavier-Übung III|Organ Mass .

Bach's abilities as an organist were highly respected throughout Europe during his lifetime, although he was not widely recognised as a great composer until a revival of interest and performances of his music in the first half of the 19th century. He is now generally regarded as one of the main composers of the Baroque style, and as one of the greatest composers of all time.Blanning, T. C. W. p. 272: "And of course the greatest master of harmony and counterpoint of all time was Johann Sebastian Bach, 'the Homer of music'

Life

Childhood (1685–1703)

Johann Sebastian Bach was born in Eisenach , Saxe-Eisenach , on 21 March 1685, Old Style and New Style dates|O.S. ^{31 March 1685, Old Style and New Style dates|N.S.} He was the youngest child of Johann Ambrosius Bach , the director of the town musicians, and Maria Elisabeth Lämmerhirt . His father taught him to play violin and harpsichord .Malcolm Boyd, Bach (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 6 His uncles were all professional musicians, whose posts ranged from church organists and court chamber musicians to composers. One uncle, Johann Christoph Bach (1645–93)|Johann Christoph Bach (1645–93), introduced him to the art of organ playing. Bach was proud of his family's musical achievements, and around 1735 he drafted a genealogy, "Origin of the musical Bach family".Printed in translation in The Bach Reader (ISBN 0-393-00259-4)

Bach's mother died in 1694, and his father eight months later.Russell H. Miles, Johann Sebastian Bach: An Introduction to His Life and Works (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc, 1962), 8. The 10-year-old orphan moved in with his oldest brother, Johann Christoph Bach (1671–1721)|Johann Christoph Bach (1671–1721), the organist at the Michaeliskirche (Ohrdruf)|Michaeliskirche in Ohrdruf , Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg .Malcolm Boyd, Bach (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 7–8. There, he copied, studied and performed music, and received valuable teaching from his brother, who instructed him on the clavichord . J.C. Bach exposed him to the works of the great South German composers of the day, such as Johann Pachelbel (under whom Johann Christoph had studied)Christoph Wolff, Johann Sebastian Bach: The Learned Musician (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, Inc., 2000), 19. and Johann Jakob Froberger , to the music of North German composers; to Frenchmen, such as Jean-Baptiste Lully , Louis Marchand , Marin Marais , and to the Italian clavierist Girolamo Frescobaldi . The young Bach probably witnessed and assisted in the maintenance of the organ. Bach's obituaryMendel et al (1998), 299 indicates that he copied music out of Johann Christoph's scores, but his brother had apparently forbidden him to do so, possibly because scores were valuable and private commodities at the time.

At the age of 14, Bach, along with his older school friend George Erdmann, was awarded a choral scholarship to study at the prestigious St. Michael's School in Lüneburg in the Principality of Lüneburg . This involved a long journey with his friend, probably undertaken partly on foot and partly by coach. His two years there appear to have been critical in exposing him to a wider facet of European culture. In addition to singing in the a cappella choir, it is likely that he played the School's three-manual organ and its harpsichords. He probably learned French and Italian, and received a thorough grounding in theology, Latin, history, geography, and physics. He would have come into contact with sons of noblemen from northern Germany sent to the highly selective school to prepare for careers in diplomacy, government, and the military.

Although little supporting historical evidence exists at this time, it is almost certain that while in Lüneburg, young Bach would have visited the '' St. John's Church, Lüneburg|Johanniskirche '' (Church of St. John) and heard (and possibly played) the church's famous organ (built in 1549 by Jasper Johannsen and nicknamed the "Böhm organ" after its most prominent master, Georg Böhm ). Given his innate musical talent, Bach would have had significant contact with prominent organists of the day in Lüneburg, most notably Böhm (the organist at Johanniskirche) as well as organists in nearby Hamburg, such as Johann Adam Reincken .Karl Geiringer, Johann Sebastian Bach: The Culmination of an Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1966), 13.

Weimar, Arnstadt and Mühlhausen (1703–08)

In January 1703, shortly after graduating from St. Michael's and after having being turned down for the post of organist at Sangerhausen , Bach gained an appointment as a court musician in the chapel of Johann Ernst III, Duke of Saxe-Weimar|Duke Johann Ernst in Weimar . His role there is unclear, but appears to have included menial, non-musical duties. During his seven-month tenure at Weimar, his reputation as a keyboard player spread. He was invited to inspect and give the inaugural recital on the new organ at St. Boniface's Church in Arnstadt .Jan Chiapusso, Bach’s World (Scarborough, Ontario: Indiana University Press, 1968), 62. The Bach family had close connections with people in this ancient town located about 40& nbsp;km to the southwest of Weimar.Karl Geiringer, Johann Sebastian Bach: The Culmination of an Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1966), 16–17. In August 1703, he accepted the post of organist at that church, with light duties, a relatively generous salary, and a fine new organ tuned in the modern tempered system that allowed a wide range of keys to be used.

Strong family connections and a musically enthusiastic employer failed to prevent tension between the young organist and the authorities after several years in the post. Bach was apparently dissatisfied with the standard of singers in the choir; more seriously, there was his unauthorised absence from Arnstadt for several months in 1705–06, when he visited the great organist and composer Dieterich Buxtehude and his Abendmusik en at the St. Mary's Church, Lübeck|Marienkirche in the northern city of Lübeck . The visit to Buxtehude involved a journey on foot of about 400& nbsp;kilometres (250& nbsp;mi) each way. The trip reinforced Buxtehude's style as a foundation for Bach's earlier works, and that he overstayed his planned visit by several months suggests that his time with the older master was of great value to him. Bach wanted to become amanuensis (assistant and successor) to Buxtehude, but did not want to marry his daughter, which apparently was a condition for his appointment.

According to a record of the proceedings of the Arnstadt consistory in August 1705, Bach was involved in a brawl:

In 1706 Bach was offered a post as organist at St. Blasius's in Mühlhausen , which he took up the following year. It included significantly higher remuneration and improved conditions, as well as a better choir. Four months after arriving at Mühlhausen, Bach married his second cousin, Maria Barbara Bach . Together they would have seven children, four of whom survived to adulthood, including Wilhelm Friedemann Bach and Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach who became important composers in their own right.

The church and city government at Mühlhausen agreed to Bach's plan for an expensive renovation of the organ at St. Blasius's. He, in turn, wrote an elaborate, festive cantata — Gott ist mein König, BWV 71 —for the inauguration of the new council in 1708. The council was so delighted with the piece that they paid handsomely for its publication, and twice in later years had the composer return to conduct it.

Weimar (1708–17)

After less than a year Bach left Mühlhausen, returning to Weimar this time as organist and concertmaster at the ducal court. The larger salary given him by Duke Johann Ernst and the prospect of working with a large, well-funded contingent of professional musicians may have prompted the move. Bach moved his family into an apartment just five minutes' walk from the ducal palace. In the following year, their first child was born and they were joined by Maria Barbara's elder, unmarried sister, who remained with them to assist in the running of the household until her death in 1729.

Bach's position in Weimar marked the start of a sustained period of composing keyboard and orchestral works, in which he had attained the technical proficiency and confidence to extend the prevailing large-scale structures and to synthesise influences from abroad. From the music of Italians such as Antonio Vivaldi|Vivaldi , Arcangelo Corelli|Corelli and Giuseppe Torelli|Torelli , he learned how to write dramatic openings and adopted their sunny dispositions, dynamic motor-rhythms and decisive harmonic schemes. Bach absorbed these stylistic aspects in part by transcribing for harpsichord and organ the concertos of Vivaldi written for various combinations of strings and winds; a number of these transcribed works are still concert favourites. Bach was particularly attracted to the Italian style in which one or more solo instruments alternate section-by-section with the full orchestra throughout a movement.

In Weimar, Bach continued to play and compose for the organ, and to perform a varied repertoire of concert music with the duke's ensemble. He also began to write the preludes and fugues which were later assembled into his monumental work The Well-Tempered Clavier|Das Wohltemperierte Clavier ("The well-tempered keyboard"— Clavier meaning clavichord or harpischord).Jan Chiapusso, Bach’s World (Scarborough, Ontario: Indiana University Press, 1968), 168. It consists of two collections compiled in 1722 and 1744,Albert Schweitzer, J. S. Bach: Volume I (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1950), 331. each containing a prelude and fugue in every major scale|major and minor scale|minor key .

During his time at Weimar, Bach started work on the Orgelbüchlein|"Little Organ Book" for his eldest son, Wilhelm Friedemann; this contains traditional Lutheranism|Lutheran chorale s ( hymn tune s), set in complex textures to assist the training of organists. The book illustrates two major themes in Bach's life: his dedication to teaching and his love of the chorale as a musical form. In 1713 Bach was offered a post in Halle when he advised the authorities during a renovation by Christoph Cuntzius of the main organ in the west gallery of the Marktkirche Unser Lieben Frauen . Johann Kuhnau and Bach played again when it was inaugurated in 1716. let.rug.nlDoor Julie Anne Sadie: Musicologists debate whether his first Christmas cantata Christen, ätzet diesen Tag, BWV 63 , was premiered here in 1713 or if it was performed for the bicentennial of the Reformation in 1717.Bach eventually fell out of favour in Weimar and was, according to a translation (see reference that follows) of the court secretary's report, jailed for almost a month before being unfavourably dismissed:

Köthen (1717–23)

Leopold, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen hired Bach to serve as his Kapellmeister (director of music). Prince Leopold, himself a musician, appreciated Bach's talents, paid him well, and gave him considerable latitude in composing and performing. The prince was Calvinism|Calvinist and did not use elaborate music in his worship; thus, most of Bach's work from this period was secular,Russell H. Miles, Johann Sebastian Bach: An Introduction to His Life and Works (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962), 57. including the Orchestral suites (Bach)|Orchestral Suites , the Cello Suites (Bach)|Six Suites for Unaccompanied Cello and the Sonatas and Partitas for solo violin (Bach)|Sonatas and partitas for solo violin . The well-known Brandenburg Concertos date from this period.Malcolm Boyd, Bach (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 74. Bach composed secular cantatas for the court such as the Die Zeit, die Tag und Jahre macht, BWV 134a .

On 7 July 1720, while Bach was abroad with Prince Leopold, Bach's wife Maria Barbara, the mother of his first seven children, suddenly died. The following year, the widower met Anna Magdalena Bach|Anna Magdalena Wilcke , a young, highly gifted soprano 17 years his junior, who performed at the court in Köthen (Anhalt)|Köthen ; they married on 3 December 1721.Karl Geiringer, Johann Sebastian Bach: The Culmination of an Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1966), 50. Together they had 13 more children, six of whom survived into adulthood: Gottfried Heinrich Bach|Gottfried Heinrich , Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach|Johann Christoph Friedrich and Johann Christian Bach|Johann Christian , all of whom became significant musicians; Elisabeth Juliane Friederica (1726–81), who married Bach's pupil Johann Christoph Altnikol; Johanna Carolina (1737–81); and Regina Susanna (1742–1809).

Leipzig (1723–50)

In 1723, Bach was appointed Cantor of the Thomasschule zu Leipzig|Thomasschule at St. Thomas Church, Leipzig|St. Thomas Church (Thomaskirche) in Leipzig , as well as Director of Music in the principal churches in the town, namely the Nikolaikirche, Leipzig|Nikolaikirche and the Paulinerkirche, Leipzig|Paulinerkirche , the church of the University of Leipzig.Russell H. Miles, Johann Sebastian Bach: An Introduction to His Life and Works (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962), 86–87. This was a prestigious post in the mercantile city in the Electorate of Saxony , which he held for 27 years until his death. It brought him into contact with the political machinations of his employer, the Leipzig Council. The Council comprised two factions: the Absolutists, loyal to the Saxon monarch in Dresden, Augustus II the Strong|Augustus the Strong ; and the City-Estate faction, representing the interests of the mercantile class, the guilds and minor aristocrats. Bach was the nominee of the monarchists, in particular of the Mayor at the time, Gottlieb Lange, a lawyer who had earlier served in the Dresden court. In return for agreeing to Bach's appointment, the City-Estate faction was granted control of the School, and Bach was required to make a number of compromises with respect to his working conditions. Although it appears that no one on the Council doubted Bach's musical genius, there was continual tension between the Cantor, who regarded himself as the leader of church music in the city, and the City-Estate faction, which saw him as a schoolmaster and wanted to reduce the emphasis on elaborate music in both the School and the Churches. The Council never honoured Lange's promise at interview of a handsome salary of 1,000 Thaler a year, although it did provide Bach and his family with a smaller income and a good apartment at one end of the school building, which was renovated at great expense in 1732.

Bach's post required him to instruct the students of the Thomasschule zu Leipzig|Thomasschule in singing and to provide church music at the main churches in Leipzig. Bach was required to teach Latin, but he was allowed to employ a deputy to do this instead. A cantata was required for the church service on Sundays and additional church holidays during the List of Bach cantatas by liturgical function|liturgical year , he performed mostly his Bach cantata|own compositions . The bulk of these cantatas was composed in his first three years in Leipzig, beginning with Die Elenden sollen essen, BWV 75 , first performed in the Nikolaikirche on 30 May 1723, the first Sunday after Trinity Sunday|Trinity . He collected them in annual cycles, five are mentioned in obituaries, three are extant. Most of these concerted works expound on the Gospel readings prescribed for every Sunday and feast day in the Lutheran year. Bach started a second annual cycle on the first Sunday after Trinity of 1724, composing only chorale cantata s, each based on a single church hymn, first O Ewigkeit, du Donnerwort, BWV 20 , then works such as Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme, BWV 140 , Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland, BWV 61 , and Wie schön leuchtet der Morgenstern, BWV 1 . For other than chorale cantatas, a stanza from a chorale typically forms the concluding movement of a work.

To rehearse and perform these works at Thomaskirche, Bach sat at the harpsichord or stood in front of the choir on the lower gallery at the west end, his back to the congregation and the altar at the east end. He would have looked upwards to the organ that rose from a loft about four metres above. To the right of the organ in a side gallery was the winds, brass and timpani; to the left were the strings. The Council provided only about eight permanent instrumentalists, a source of continual friction with the Cantor, who had to recruit the rest of the 20 or so players required for medium-to-large scores from the University, the School and the public. The organ or harpsichord was probably played by the composer (when not standing to conduct), the in-house organist, or one of Bach's elder sons, Wilhelm Friedemann or Carl Philipp Emanuel..

Bach drew the soprano and alto choristers from the School, and the tenors and basses from the School and elsewhere in Leipzig. Performing at weddings and funerals provided extra income for these groups; it was probably for this purpose, and for in-school training, that he wrote at least six motet s, mostly for double choir . As part of his regular church work, he performed motets of the Venetian School (music)|Venetian School and Germans such as Heinrich Schütz , which would have served as formal models for his own motets.
Bach wanted to broaden his composing and performing beyond the liturgy. In March 1729, he took over the directorship of the Collegium Musicum , a secular performance ensemble that had been started in 1701 by his old friend, the composer Georg Philipp Telemann . This was one of the dozens of private societies in the major German-speaking cities that had been established by musically active university students; these societies had come to play an increasingly important role in public musical life and were typically led by the most prominent professionals in a city. In the words of Christoph Wolff , assuming the directorship was a shrewd move that 'consolidated Bach's firm grip on Leipzig's principal musical institutions'. During much of the year, Leipzig's Collegium Musicum performed twice weekly for two hours in the Zimmermannsches Caffeehaus , a Coffeehouse on Catherine Street off the main market square. Many of Bach's works during the 1730s and 1740s were written for and performed by the Collegium Musicum; among these were almost certainly parts of the Clavier-Übung ( Keyboard Practice ) and many of the violin and Harpsichord concertos (J. S. Bach)|harpsichord concertos ..

In 1733, Bach composed the Kyrie and Gloria of the Mass in B minor . He presented the manuscript to the King of Poland, Grand Duke of Lithuania and Elector of Saxony, Augustus III of Poland|August III in an eventually successful bid to persuade the monarch to appoint him as Royal Court Composer. He later extended this work into a full Mass, by adding a Credo, Sanctus and Agnus Dei, the music for which was almost wholly taken from some of the best of his cantata movements. Bach's appointment as court composer appears to have been part of his long-term struggle to achieve greater bargaining power with the Leipzig Council. Although the complete mass was probably never performed during the composer's lifetime,Gerhard Hertz, Essays on J.S. Bach (Ann Arbor, Michigan: UMI Research Press, 1985), 187. it is considered to be among the greatest choral works of all time. Between 1737 and 1739, Bach's former pupil Carl Gotthelf Gerlach took over the directorship of the Collegium Musicum.

In 1747, Bach visited the court of the Frederick II of Prussia|King of Prussia in Potsdam . There the king played a theme for Bach and challenged him to improvise a fugue based on his theme. Bach improvised a three-part fugue on Frederick's Fortepiano|pianoforte , then a novelty, and later presented the king with a The Musical Offering|Musical Offering which consists of fugues, canons and a trio based on the "royal theme," nominated by the monarch. Its six-part fugue includes a slightly altered subject more suitable for extensive elaboration.

The Art of Fugue was written shortly before Bach's death and was finished but for the final fugue. It consists of 18 complex fugues and canons based on a simple theme.Jan Chiapusso, Bach’s World (Scarborough, Ontario: Indiana University Press, 1968), 277. It was only published posthumously.

The final work Bach completed was a chorale prelude for organ, dictated to his son-in-law, Johann Christoph Altnickol|Johann Altnikol , from his deathbed. Entitled Vor deinen Thron tret ich hiermit ( Before thy throne I now appear , Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis|BWV 668a); when the notes on the three staves of the final cadence are counted and mapped onto the Roman alphabet, the initials "JSB" are found.Karl Geiringer, Johann Sebastian Bach: The Culmination of an Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1966), 256.

Death (1750)

Bach's health declined in 1749; on 2 June, Heinrich von Brühl wrote to one of the Leipzig burgomaster s to request that his music director, Gottlob Harrer, fill the post of Thomascantor and Director musices posts "upon the eventual ... decease of Mr. Bach.", from Mendel A and David HT (eds), The new Bach reader: a life of Johann Sebastian Bach in letters and documents , revised and expanded by Wolff C, New York, 1998 Bach became increasingly blind, and the British eye surgeon John Taylor (oculist)|John Taylor operated on Bach while visiting Leipzig in 1750.

On 28 July 1750 Bach died at the age of 65. A contemporary newspaper reported the cause of death as "from the unhappy consequences of the very unsuccessful eye operation". Some modern historians speculate that the cause of death was a stroke complicated by pneumonia. An obituary was written by his son Emanuel and his pupil Johann Friedrich Agricola at the time."The World-Famous Organist, Mr. Johann Sebastian Bach, Royal Polish and Electoral Saxon Court Composer, and Music Director in Leipzig," by Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach and Johann Friedrich Agricola, from Mendel et al (1998), 299 Bach's estate was valued at 1159 Thaler and included five Clavecin s, two lute-harpsichords, three violins, three violas, two cellos, a viola da gamba , a lute and a spinet , and 52 "sacred books", including books by Martin Luther and Josephus . He was originally buried at Old St. John's Cemetery in Leipzig. His grave went unmarked for nearly 150 years. In 1894 his coffin was finally discovered and reburied in a vault within St. John's Church. This building was destroyed by Allied bombing during World War II, and in 1950 Bach's remains were taken to their present resting place at Leipzig's Church of St. Thomas.

Legacy

A comprehensive obituary of Bach was published (without attribution) four years later in 1754 by Lorenz Christoph Mizler (another former student) in Musikalische Bibliothek a musical periodical. The obituary remains probably "the richest and most trustworthy"Mendel et al (1998), 297 early source document about Bach. However, after his death, Bach's reputation as a composer at first declined; his work was regarded as old-fashioned compared to the emerging classical style . Beethoven: the universal composer. Edmund Morris, 2005, p. 2 ff " mocked as passé even in his own lifetime." Initially he was remembered more as a player, teacher and as the father of his children, most notably Johann Christian Bach|Johann Christian and Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach|Carl Philipp Emanuel .
During the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, Bach was widely recognised for his keyboard work. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart , Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven , and Frédéric Chopin|Chopin were among his most prominent admirers. Beethoven described him as the " Urvater der Harmonie ", "original father of harmony". Composers such as Mozart, Beethoven, Robert Schumann , and Felix Mendelssohn began writing in a more contrapuntal style after being exposed to Bach's music.
The composer's reputation among the wider public was prompted in part by Johann Nikolaus Forkel 's 1802 biography. Felix Mendelssohn significantly contributed to the revival of Bach's reputation with his 1829 Berlin performance of the St Matthew Passion .Herbert Kupferberg, Basically Bach: A 300th Birthday Celebration (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1985), 126. In 1850, the Bach Gesellschaft (Bach Society) was founded to promote the works; by 1899, the Society had published a comprehensive edition of the composer's works, with a conservative approach to editorial intervention. At the time Bach's music was mostly performed on the newly prominent Hammerklavier .
During the 20th century, the process of recognising the musical as well as the pedagogic value of some of the works has continued, perhaps most notably in the promotion of the Cello Suites (Bach)|Cello Suites by Pablo Casals . Another development has been the growth of the "authentic" or Authentic performance|period performance movement, which, as far as possible, attempts to present the music as the composer intended it. Examples include the playing of keyboard works on the harpsichord rather than a modern grand piano and the use of small choirs or single voices instead of the larger forces favoured by 19th- and early 20th-century performers.The Bach (crater)|Bach Crater on Mercury is named for him.

Bach's contributions to music—or, to borrow a term popularised by his student Lorenz Christoph Mizler , his "musical science"—are frequently bracketed with those by William Shakespeare in English literature and Isaac Newton in physics. In Germany, many streets were named and statues were erected in honour of Bach during the twentieth century. Three pieces of Bach's work were included onboard the Voyager program|Voyager spacecrafts in the form of Voyager Golden Record|golden records that were meant to "represent our hope and our determination and our goodwill".

Works

In 1950, a catalogue called Bach Werke Verzeichnis (Bach Works Catalogue) was compiled by Wolfgang Schmieder , who organised the work of Bach thematically. In compiling the catalogue, Schmieder largely followed the Bach Gesellschaft Ausgabe , a comprehensive edition of the composer's works that was produced between 1850 and 1905: BWV 1–224 are Bach cantata|cantata s; BWV 225–249, the large-scale choral works including his Passions (Bach)|Passions ; BWV 250–524, chorale s and sacred songs; BWV 525–748, Organ (music)|organ works; BWV 772–994, other keyboard works; BWV 995–1000, lute music; BWV 1001–40, chamber music ; BWV 1041–71, orchestral music; and BWV 1072–1126, Canon (music)|canons and fugue s.

Organ works

Bach was best known during his lifetime as an organist, organ consultant, and composer of organ works in both the traditional German free genres—such as prelude (music)|preludes , fantasia (music)|fantasias , and toccata s—and stricter forms, such as chorale prelude s and fugue s. He established a reputation at a young age for his great creativity and ability to integrate foreign styles into his organ works. A decidedly North German influence was exerted by Georg Böhm , with whom Bach came into contact in Lüneburg, and Dieterich Buxtehude in Lübeck , whom the young organist visited in 1704 on an extended leave of absence from his job in Arnstadt. Around this time, Bach copied the works of numerous French and Italian composers to gain insights into their compositional languages, and later arranged violin concertos by Antonio Vivaldi|Vivaldi and others for organ and harpsichord. His most productive period (1708–14) saw the composition of several pairs of preludes and fugue s and toccatas and fugues, and of the Orgelbüchlein ("Little organ book"), an unfinished collection of 45 short chorale preludes that demonstrate compositional techniques in the setting of chorale tunes. After he left Weimar, Bach's output for organ fell off, although his best-known works (the six trio sonata s, the "German Organ Mass" in Clavier-Übung III from 1739, and the " Great Eighteen Chorale Preludes|Great Eighteen " chorales, revised late in his life) were all composed after this time. Bach was extensively engaged later in his life in consulting on organ projects, testing newly built organs, and dedicating organs in afternoon recitals. One of the high points may be the third part of the Clavier-Übung , a setting of 21 chorale preludes uniting the traditional Catholic Missa with the Lutheran catechism liturgy, the whole set interpolated between the mighty "St. Anne" Prelude and Fugue on the theme of the Trinity.

Other keyboard works

Bach wrote many works for the harpsichord , some of which may have been played on the clavichord . Many of his keyboard works are anthologies that show an eagerness to encompass whole theoretical systems in an encyclopaedic fashion.

The Well-Tempered Clavier , Books 1 and 2 (BWV 846–893). Each book comprises a prelude and fugue in each of the 24 major and minor key (music)|keys in chromatic order from C major to B minor (thus, the whole collection is often referred to as 'the 48'). "Well-tempered" in the title refers to the musical temperament|temperament (system of tuning); many temperaments before Bach's time were not flexible enough to allow compositions to move through more than just a few keys.Albert Schweitzer, J. S. Bach: Volume I (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1950), 333.

The Inventions and Sinfonias (J. S. Bach)|15 Inventions and 15 Sinfonias (BWV 772–801). These short two- and three-part contrapuntal works are arranged in the same chromatic order as the Well-Tempered Clavier, omitting some of the less used keys. The pieces were intended by Bach for instructional purposes.

Three collections of suite (music)|dance suites : the English Suites (BWV 806–811) , the French Suites (BWV 812–817) and the Partitas for keyboard (825–830)|Partitas for keyboard (BWV 825–830). Each collection contains six suites built on the standard model ( Allemande – Courante – Sarabande –(optional movement)– Gigue ). The English Suites closely follow the traditional model, adding a prelude before the allemande and including a single movement between the sarabande and the gigue. The French Suites omit preludes, but have multiple movements between the sarabande and the gigue. The partitas expand the model further with elaborate introductory movements and miscellaneous movements between the basic elements of the model.

The Goldberg Variations (BWV 988), an aria with thirty Variation (music)|variations . The collection has a complex and unconventional structure: the variations build on the bass line of the aria, rather than its melody, and musical canon (music)|canons are interpolated according to a grand plan. There are nine canons within the 30 variations, one placed every three variations between variations 3 and 27. These variations move in order from canon at the unison to canon at the ninth. The first eight are in pairs (unison and octave, second and seventh, third and sixth, fourth and fifth). The ninth canon stands on its own due to compositional dissimilarities.

Miscellaneous pieces such as the Overture in the French Style ( French Overture , BWV 831), Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue (BWV 903), and the Italian Concerto, BWV 971|Italian Concerto (BWV 971) .

Among Bach's lesser known keyboard works are seven toccatas (BWV 910–916), Duets (Bach)|four duets (BWV 802–805) , sonata s for keyboard (BWV 963–967), the Six Little Prelude (music)|Preludes (BWV 933–938), and the Aria variata alla maniera italiana (BWV 989).

Orchestral and chamber music

Bach wrote music for single instruments, duets and small ensembles. Bach's works for solo instruments—the six Sonatas and partitas for solo violin (Bach)|sonatas and partitas for violin (BWV 1001–1006), the six Cello Suites (Bach)|cello suites (BWV 1007–1012) and the Partita for solo flute ( BWV 1013 )—may be listed among the most profound works in the repertoire. Bach composed a suite and several other works for solo lute. He wrote trio sonata s; solo sonata (music)|sonatas (accompanied by Figured bass|continuo ) for the flute and for the viola da gamba ; and a large number of Canon (music)|canons and ricercar e, mostly for unspecified instrumentation. The most significant examples of the latter are contained in The Art of Fugue and The Musical Offering .

Bach's best-known orchestral works are the Brandenburg concertos , so named because he submitted them in the hope of gaining employment from Margrave Christian Ludwig of Brandenburg-Schwedt in 1721; his application was unsuccessful. These works are examples of the concerto grosso genre. Other surviving works in the concerto form include two violin concertos ( BWV 1041 and BWV 1042 ); a Concerto for Two Violins in D Minor ( BWV 1043 ), often referred to as Bach's "double" concerto; and Harpsichord concertos (J. S. Bach)|concertos for one, two, three and even four harpsichords . It is widely accepted that many of the harpsichord concertos were not original works, but arrangements of his concertos for other instruments now lost. A number of violin, oboe and flute concertos have been reconstructed from these. In addition to concertos, Bach wrote four Orchestral suites (Bach)|orchestral suites , a series of stylised dances for orchestra, each preceded by a French overture . The work now known as the Air on the G String is an arrangement for the violin made in the nineteenth century from the second movement of the Orchestral Suite No.& nbsp;3. An arrangement of the Air for cello and piano was the very first piece of Bach's music to be recorded, in 1902 in Saint Petersburg , by the Russian cellist Aleksandr Verzhbilovich .

Vocal and choral works

As the Thomaskantor , beginning mid of 1723, Bach performed a cantata on Sundays and feast days, corresponding to the lectionary readings of the week, as determined by the Lutheranism|Lutheran Church Year calendar. Leipzig observed quiet time during Lent and Advent , then no cantata music was allowed. Although Bach performed cantatas by other composers, he composed at least three entire annual cycles of Bach cantata|cantata s, one for each Sunday and holiday of the List of Bach cantatas by liturgical function|church year , at Leipzig, in addition to those composed at Mühlhausen and Weimar. In total he wrote more than List of Bach cantatas|300 sacred cantatas , of which approximately 200 survive.

His cantatas vary greatly in form and instrumentation. Some of them are only for a solo singer; some are single choruses; some are for grand orchestras; some only a few instruments. A common format consists of a large opening chorus followed by one or more recitative-aria pairs for soloists (or duets) and a concluding chorale . The recitative is part of the corresponding Bible reading for the week and the aria is a contemporary reflection on it. The melody of the concluding chorale often appears as a cantus firmus in the opening movement. Among the best known cantatas are Christ lag in Todes Banden, BWV 4 ,
Ich hatte viel Bekümmernis, BWV 21 , Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott, BWV 80 , Gottes Zeit ist die allerbeste Zeit, BWV 106 ( Actus Tragicus ), Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme, BWV 140 and Herz und Mund und Tat und Leben, BWV 147 .

In addition, Bach wrote a number of secular cantatas, usually for civic events such as council inaugurations. These include wedding cantatas, the Quodlibet, BWV 524|Wedding Quodlibet , the Peasant Cantata and the Coffee Cantata , which concerns a girl whose father will not let her marry until she gives up her addiction to that drink.

Bach's large choral-orchestral works include the grand scale St Matthew Passion and St John Passion , both written for Good Friday vespers services at the St. Thomas Church, Leipzig|Thomaskirche and the St. Nicholas Church, Leipzig|Nikolaikirche in alternate years, and the Christmas Oratorio (a set of six cantatas for use in the Liturgical year|Liturgical season of Christmas). The Magnificat (Bach)|Magnificat in two versions (one in E-flat major, with four interpolated Christmas-related movements, and the later and better-known version in D major), the Easter Oratorio , and the Ascension Oratorio compare to large, elaborate cantatas, of a lesser extent than the Passions and the Christmas Oratorio.

Bach's other large work, the Mass in B minor , was assembled by Bach near the end of his life, mostly from pieces composed earlier (such as the cantatas Gloria in excelsis Deo, BWV 191 and Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen, BWV 12 ). It was never performed in Bach's lifetime, or even after his death, until the 19th century.

All of these works, unlike the six List of compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach#Motets (225–231)|motets ( Singet dem Herrn ein neues Lied ; Der Geist hilft unser Schwachheit auf ; Jesu, meine Freude ; Fürchte dich nicht ; Komm, Jesu, komm! ; and Lobet den Herrn alle Heiden ), have substantial solo parts as well as choruses.

Bach's signature in a copy of a three volume Bible commentary by the orthodox Lutheran theologian, Abraham Calov, was discovered in 1934 in a house in Frankenmuth, Michigan in the US. It is not known how the Bible came to America, but it was purchased in a used book store in Philadelphia in the 1830s or 1840s by an immigrant and taken to Michigan. Its provenance was verified and it was subsequently deposited in the rare book holdings of Concordia Seminary in St. Louis, Missouri . It contains Bach's markings of texts for his cantatas and notes. It is only rarely displayed to the public. A study of the so-called Bach Bible was prepared by Robin Leaver, titled J.S. Bach and Scripture: Glosses from the Calov Bible Commentary (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1985).

Musical style

Bach's musical style arose from his extraordinary fluency in contrapuntal invention and motivic control, his flair for improvisation at the keyboard, his exposure to South German, North German, Italian and French music, and his apparent devotion to the Lutheran liturgy. His access to musicians, scores and instruments as a child and a young man, combined with his emerging talent for writing tightly woven music of powerful sonority, appear to have set him on course to develop an eclectic, energetic musical style in which foreign influences were injected into an intensified version of the pre-existing German musical language. Throughout his teens and 20s, his output showed increasing skill in the large-scale organisation of musical ideas, and the enhancement of the Buxtehudian model of improvisatory preludes and counterpoint of limited complexity. The period 1713–14, when a large repertoire of Italian music became available to the Weimar court orchestra, was a turning point. From this time onwards, he appears to have absorbed into his style the Italians' dramatic openings, clear melodic contours, the sharp outlines of their bass lines, greater motoric and rhythmic conciseness, more unified motivic treatment, and more clearly articulated schemes for modulation.

There are several more specific features of Bach's style. The notation of Baroque melodic lines tended to assume that composers would write out only the basic framework, and that performers would embellish this framework by inserting ornamental notes and otherwise elaborating on it. Although this practice varied considerably between the schools of European music, Bach was regarded at the time as being on one extreme end of the spectrum, notating most or all of the details of his melodic lines—particularly in his fast movements—thus leaving little for performers to interpolate. This may have assisted his control over the dense contrapuntal textures that he favoured, which allow less leeway for the spontaneous variation of musical lines. Bach's contrapuntal textures tend to be more cumulative than those of Händel and most other composers of the day, who would typically allow a line to drop out after it had been joined by two or three others. Bach's harmony is marked by a tendency to employ brief tonicization|tonicisation —subtle references to another key that lasts for only a few beats at the longest—particularly of the supertonic , to add colour to his textures.

At the same time, Bach, unlike later composers, left the instrumentation of major works including The Art of Fugue and The Musical Offering open. It is likely that his detailed notation was less an absolute demand on the performer and more a response to a 17th-century culture in which the boundary between what the performer could embellish and what the composer demanded to be authentic was being negotiated.

Bach's apparently devout, personal relationship with the Christian God in the Lutheran_Orthodoxy|Lutheran traditionHerl, J.. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. and the high demand for religious music of his times inevitably placed sacred music at the centre of his repertory. He taught Luther's Small Catechism as the Thomascantor in Leipzig, Leaver, R.A.. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans Publishing, 2007. and some of his pieces represent it.For example, see Grove, G. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians . Vol. 4. New York: Macmillian, 1980. p. 335. Specifically, the Lutheran chorale hymn tune, the principal musical aspect of the Lutheran_Orthodoxy|Lutheran service, was the basis of much of his output. He invested the chorale prelude, already a standard set of Lutheran forms, with a more cogent, tightly integrated architecture, in which the intervallic patterns and melodic contours of the tune were typically treated in a dense, contrapuntal lattice against relatively slow-moving, overarching statements of the tune.

Bach's theology informed his compositional structures: Sei Gegrüsset is perhaps the finest example where there is a theme with 11 variations (making 12 movements) that, while still one work, becomes two sets of six—to match Lutheran preaching principles of repetition. At the same time the theological interpretation of 'master' and 11 disciples would not be lost on his contemporary audience. Further, the practical relationship of each variation to the next (in preparing registration and the expected textural changes) seems to show an incredible capacity to preach through the music using the musical forms available at the time.

Bach's deep knowledge of and interest in the liturgy led to his developing intricate relationships between music and linguistic text. This was evident from the smallest to the largest levels of his compositional technique. On the smallest level, many of his sacred works contain short motifs that, by recurrent association, can be regarded as pictorial symbolism and articulations of liturgical concepts. For example, the octave leap, usually in a bass line, represents the relationship between heaven and earth; the slow, repeated notes of the bass line in the opening movement of the cantata Gottes Zeit ist die allerbeste Zeit, BWV 106 ) depict the laboured trudging of Jesus as he was forced to drag the cross from the city to the crucifixion site.

On the largest level, the large-scale structure of some of his sacred vocal works is evidence of subtle, elaborate planning: for example, the overall form of the St Matthew Passion illustrates the liturgical and dramatic flow of the Easter story on a number of levels simultaneously; the text, keys and variations of instrumental and vocal forces used in the movements of the Ascension Oratorio Lobet Gott in seinen Reichen, BWV 11 ) may form a structure that resembles the cross.

Beyond these specific musical features arising from Bach's religious affiliation is the fact that he was able to produce music for an audience that was committed to serious, regular worship, for which a concentrated density and complexity was accepted. His natural inclination may have been to reinvigorate existing forms, rather than to discard them and pursue more dramatic musical innovations. Thus, Bach's inventive genius was almost entirely directed towards working within the structures he inherited, according to most critics and historians.

Bach's inner personal drive to display his musical achievements was evident in a number of ways. The most obvious was his successful striving to become the leading virtuoso and improviser of the day on the organ. Keyboard music occupied a central position in his output throughout his life, and he pioneered the elevation of the keyboard from Figured bass|continuo to solo instrument in his numerous Harpsichord concertos (J. S. Bach)|harpsichord concertos and chamber movements with keyboard obbligato , in which he himself probably played the solo part. Many of his keyboard preludes are vehicles for a free improvisatory virtuosity in the German tradition, although their internal organisation became increasingly more cogent as he matured. Virtuosity is a key element in other forms, such as the fugal movement from Brandenburg Concerto No. 4 , in which Bach himself may have been the first to play the rapid solo violin passages. Another example is in the organ fugue from BWV 548, a late work from Leipzig, in which virtuosic passages are mapped onto Italian solo-tutti alternation within the fugal development.

Related to his cherished role as teacher was his drive to encompass whole genres by producing collections of movements that thoroughly explore the range of artistic and technical possibilities inherent in those genres. The most famous examples are the two books of the Well Tempered Clavier , each of which presents a prelude and fugue in every major and minor key, in which a variety of contrapuntal and fugal techniques are displayed. The English and French Suites, and the Partitas, all keyboard works from the Köthen period, systematically explore a range of metres and of sharp and flat keys. This urge to manifest structures is evident throughout his life: the Goldberg Variations (1746? ), include a sequence of canons at increasing intervals (unison, seconds, thirds, etc.), and The Art of Fugue (1749) can be seen as a compendium of fugal techniques.

Performances

Present-day Bach performers usually pursue either of two traditions: so-called " Historically informed performance|authentic performance practice", utilising historical techniques, or alternatively the use of modern instruments and playing techniques, with a tendency towards larger ensembles. In Bach's time orchestras and choirs were usually smaller than those known to, for example, Brahms , and even Bach's most ambitious choral works, such as his Mass in B minor and Passions, are composed for relatively modest forces. Some of Bach's important chamber music does not indicate instrumentation, which gives greater latitude for variety of ensemble.

Easy listening realisations of Bach's music and their use in advertising contributed greatly to Bach's popularisation in the second half of the twentieth century. Among these were the Swingle Singers ' versions of Bach pieces that are now well-known (for instance, the Air on the G string , or the Wachet Auf chorale prelude) and Wendy Carlos 's 1968 groundbreaking recording Switched-On Bach , using the then recently invented Moog synthesizer|Moog electronic synthesiser . Jazz musicians have adopted Bach's music, with Jacques Loussier , Ian Anderson (musician)|Ian Anderson , Uri Caine and the Modern Jazz Quartet among those creating jazz versions of Bach works.

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