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Mathematics (from Greek language|Greek µ???µa máthema "knowledge, study, learning") is the study of quantity , structure , space , and calculus|change . Mathematician s seek out patterns and formulate new conjecture s. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proof . The research required to solve mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry. Since the pioneering work of Giuseppe Peano (1858-1932), David Hilbert (1862-1943), and others on axiomatic systems in the late 19th century, it has become customary to view mathematical research as establishing truth by Mathematical rigour|rigorous deductive reasoning|deduction from appropriately chosen axiom s and definition s. When those mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena, then mathematical reasoning often provides insight or predictions.

Through the use of abstraction (mathematics)|abstraction and logic al reasoning , mathematics developed from counting , calculation , measurement , and the systematic study of the shape s and motion (physics)|motions of physical objects. Practical mathematics has been a human activity for as far back as History of Mathematics|written records exist. Logic|Rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics , most notably in Euclid|Euclid's '' Euclid's Elements|Elements . Mathematics developed at a relatively slow pace until the Renaissance , when mathematical innovations interacting with new timeline of scientific discoveries|scientific discoveries led to a rapid increase in the rate of mathematical discovery that continues to the present day.Eves

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) said, 'The universe cannot be read until we have learned the language and become familiar with the characters in which it is written. It is written in mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word. Without these, one is wandering about in a dark labyrinth'. Marcus du Sautoy , , BBC Radio 4 , 27/09/2010. Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) referred to mathematics as "the Queen of the Sciences".Waltershausen Benjamin Peirce (1809-1880) called mathematics "the science that draws necessary conclusions".Peirce, p. 97. David Hilbert said of mathematics: "We are not speaking here of arbitrariness in any sense. Mathematics is not like a game whose tasks are determined by arbitrarily stipulated rules. Rather, it is a conceptual system possessing internal necessity that can only be so and by no means otherwise."Hilbert, D. (1919-20), Natur und Mathematisches Erkennen: Vorlesungen, gehalten 1919-1920 in Göttingen. Nach der Ausarbeitung von Paul Bernays (Edited and with an English introduction by David E. Rowe), Basel, Birkhäuser (1992). Albert Einstein (1879-1955) stated that "as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain; and as far as they are certain, they do not refer to reality".

Mathematics is used throughout the world as an essential tool in many fields, including natural science , engineering , medicine , and the social sciences . Applied mathematics , the branch of mathematics concerned with application of mathematical knowledge to other fields, inspires and makes use of new mathematical discoveries and sometimes leads to the development of entirely new mathematical disciplines, such as statistics and game theory . Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics , or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in mind. There is no clear line separating pure and applied mathematics, and practical applications for what began as pure mathematics are often discovered.Peterson

Etymology

The word "mathematics" comes from the ancient Greek language|Greek µ???µa ( máthema ), which means in ancient Greek what one learns , what one gets to know , hence also study and science , and in modern Greek just lesson .

The word máthema comes from µa????? ( manthano ) in ancient Greek and from µa?a??? ( mathaino ) in modern Greek, both of which mean to learn .

The word "mathematics" in Greek came to have the narrower and more technical meaning "mathematical study", even in Classical times.Both senses can be found in Plato. Liddell and Scott, s.voce µa??µat???? Its adjective is ( mathematikós ), meaning related to learning or studious , which likewise further came to mean mathematical . In particular, ( mathematik? tékhne ), , meant the mathematical art . In Latin, and in English until around 1700, the term "mathematics" more commonly meant "astrology" (or sometimes "astronomy") rather than "mathematics"; the meaning gradually changed to its present one from about 1500 to 1800. This has resulted in several mistranslations: a particularly notorious one is Saint Augustine 's warning that Christians should beware of "mathematici" meaning astrologers, which is sometimes mistranslated as a condemnation of mathematicians.

The apparent plural form in English, like the French plural form (and the less commonly used singular derivative ), goes back to the Latin neuter plural ( Cicero ), based on the Greek plural , used by Aristotle (384-322BC), and meaning roughly "all things mathematical"; although it is plausible that English borrowed only the adjective mathematic(al) and formed the noun mathematics anew, after the pattern of physics and metaphysics , which were inherited from the Greek. The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology , Oxford English Dictionary , sub "mathematics", "mathematic", "mathematics" In English, the noun mathematics takes singular verb forms. It is often shortened to maths or, in English-speaking North America, math .

History

The evolution of mathematics might be seen as an ever-increasing series of abstraction (mathematics)|abstractions , or alternatively an expansion of subject matter. The first abstraction, which is shared by many animals, was probably that of number s: the realization that a collection of two apples and a collection of two oranges (for example) have something in common, namely quantity of their members.

In addition to recognizing how to counting|count physical objects, Prehistory|prehistoric peoples also recognized how to count abstract quantities, like time – days, season s, years.See, for example, Raymond L. Wilder, Evolution of Mathematical Concepts; an Elementary Study , passim Elementary arithmetic ( addition , subtraction , multiplication and division (mathematics)|division ) naturally followed.

Since numeracy pre-dated writing , further steps were needed for recording numbers such as Tally sticks|tallies or the knotted strings called quipu used by the Inca to store numerical data. Numeral system s have been many and diverse, with the first known written numerals created by Ancient Egypt|Egyptians in Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom texts such as the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus .
The earliest uses of mathematics were in Trade|trading , land measurement , painting and weaving patterns and the recording of time. More complex mathematics did not appear until around 3000 BC, when the Babylonian s and Egyptians began using arithmetic, algebra and geometry for taxation and other financial calculations, for building and construction, and for astronomy .Kline 1990, Chapter 1. The systematic study of mathematics in its own right began with the Ancient Greeks between 600 and 300 BC." ". Thomas Little Heath (1981). ISBN 0-486-24073-8

Mathematics has since been greatly extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science , to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today. According to Mikhail B. Sevryuk, in the January 2006 issue of the Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society , "The number of papers and books included in the Mathematical Reviews database since 1940 (the first year of operation of MR) is now more than 1.9 million, and more than 75 thousand items are added to the database each year. The overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theorem s and their mathematical proof|proofs ."Sevryuk

Inspiration, pure and applied mathematics, and aesthetics

Mathematics arises from many different kinds of problems. At first these were found in commerce , land measurement , architecture and later astronomy ; nowadays, all sciences suggest problems studied by mathematicians, and many problems arise within mathematics itself. For example, the physicist Richard Feynman invented the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics using a combination of mathematical reasoning and physical insight, and today's string theory , a still-developing scientific theory which attempts to unify the four Fundamental interaction|fundamental forces of nature , continues to inspire new mathematics. Some mathematics is only relevant in the area that inspired it, and is applied to solve further problems in that area. But often mathematics inspired by one area proves useful in many areas, and joins the general stock of mathematical concepts. A distinction is often made between pure mathematics and applied mathematics . However pure mathematics topics often turn out to have applications, e.g. number theory in cryptography . This remarkable fact that even the "purest" mathematics often turns out to have practical applications is what Eugene Wigner has called " The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences|the unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics ".
As in most areas of study, the explosion of knowledge in the scientific age has led to specialization: there are now hundreds of specialized areas in mathematics and the latest Mathematics Subject Classification runs to 46 pages. Several areas of applied mathematics have merged with related traditions outside of mathematics and become disciplines in their own right, including statistics , operations research , and computer science .

For those who are mathematically inclined, there is often a definite aesthetic aspect to much of mathematics. Many mathematicians talk about the elegance of mathematics, its intrinsic aesthetics and inner beauty . Simplicity and generality are valued. There is beauty in a simple and elegant proof (mathematics)|proof , such as Euclid 's proof that there are infinitely many prime number s, and in an elegant numerical method that speeds calculation, such as the fast Fourier transform . G. H. Hardy in '' A Mathematician's Apology '' expressed the belief that these aesthetic considerations are, in themselves, sufficient to justify the study of pure mathematics. He identified criteria such as significance, unexpectedness, inevitability, and economy as factors that contribute to a mathematical aesthetic. Mathematicians often strive to find proofs that are particularly elegant, proofs from "The Book" of God according to Paul Erdos . The popularity of recreational mathematics is another sign of the pleasure many find in solving mathematical questions.

Notation, language, and rigor

Most of the mathematical notation in use today was not invented until the 16th century. (Contains many further references). Before that, mathematics was written out in words, a painstaking process that limited mathematical discovery.Kline, p. 140, on Diophantus ; p.261, on Franciscus Vieta|Vieta . Leonhard Euler|Euler (1707–1783) was responsible for many of the notations in use today. Modern notation makes mathematics much easier for the professional, but beginners often find it daunting. It is extremely compressed: a few symbols contain a great deal of information. Like musical notation , modern mathematical notation has a strict syntax (which to a limited extent varies from author to author and from discipline to discipline) and encodes information that would be difficult to write in any other way.

Mathematical language can be difficult to understand for beginners. Words such as or and only have more precise meanings than in everyday speech. Moreover, words such as open set|open and field (mathematics)|field have been given specialized mathematical meanings. Technical terms such as homeomorphism and Integral|integrable have precise meanings in mathematics. Additionally, shorthand phrases such as "iff" for "if and only if" belong to mathematical jargon . There is a reason for special notation and technical vocabulary: mathematics requires more precision than everyday speech. Mathematicians refer to this precision of language and logic as "rigor".

Mathematical proof is fundamentally a matter of rigor . Mathematicians want their theorems to follow from axioms by means of systematic reasoning. This is to avoid mistaken " theorem s", based on fallible intuitions, of which many instances have occurred in the history of the subject.See false proof for simple examples of what can go wrong in a formal proof. The level of rigor expected in mathematics has varied over time: the Greeks expected detailed arguments, but at the time of Isaac Newton the methods employed were less rigorous. Problems inherent in the definitions used by Newton would lead to a resurgence of careful analysis and formal proof in the 19th century. Misunderstanding the rigor is a cause for some of the common misconceptions of mathematics. Today, mathematicians continue to argue among themselves about computer-assisted proof s. Since large computations are hard to verify, such proofs may not be sufficiently rigorous.Ivars Peterson, The Mathematical Tourist , Freeman, 1988, ISBN 0-7167-1953-3. p. 4 "A few complain that the computer program can't be verified properly", (in reference to the Haken-Apple proof of the Four Color Theorem).

Axiom s in traditional thought were "self-evident truths", but that conception is problematic. At a formal level, an axiom is just a string of symbols, which has an intrinsic meaning only in the context of all derivable formulas of an axiomatic system . It was the goal of Hilbert's program to put all of mathematics on a firm axiomatic basis, but according to Gödel's incompleteness theorem every (sufficiently powerful) axiomatic system has independence (mathematical logic)|undecidable formulas; and so a final axiomatization of mathematics is impossible. Nonetheless mathematics is often imagined to be (as far as its formal content) nothing but set theory in some axiomatization, in the sense that every mathematical statement or proof could be cast into formulas within set theory.Patrick Suppes, Axiomatic Set Theory , Dover, 1972, ISBN 0-486-61630-4. p. 1, "Among the many branches of modern mathematics set theory occupies a unique place: with a few rare exceptions the entities which are studied and analyzed in mathematics may be regarded as certain particular sets or classes of objects."

Fields of mathematics

Mathematics can, broadly speaking, be subdivided into the study of quantity, structure, space, and change (i.e. arithmetic , algebra , geometry , and mathematical analysis|analysis ). In addition to these main concerns, there are also subdivisions dedicated to exploring links from the heart of mathematics to other fields: to mathematical logic|logic , to set theory ( foundations of mathematics|foundations ), to the empirical mathematics of the various sciences ( applied mathematics ), and more recently to the rigorous study of uncertainty .

Foundations and philosophy

In order to clarify the foundations of mathematics , the fields of mathematical logic and set theory were developed. Mathematical logic includes the mathematical study of logic and the applications of formal logic to other areas of mathematics; set theory is the branch of mathematics that studies Set (mathematics)|sets or collections of objects. Category theory , which deals in an abstract way with mathematical structure s and relationships between them, is still in development. The phrase "crisis of foundations" describes the search for a rigorous foundation for mathematics that took place from approximately 1900 to 1930.Luke Howard Hodgkin & Luke Hodgkin, A History of Mathematics , Oxford University Press, 2005. Some disagreement about the foundations of mathematics continues to the present day. The crisis of foundations was stimulated by a number of controversies at the time, including the controversy over Cantor's theory|controversy over Cantor's set theory and the Brouwer-Hilbert controversy .

Mathematical logic is concerned with setting mathematics within a rigorous axiom atic framework, and studying the implications of such a framework. As such, it is home to Gödel's incompleteness theorems which (informally) imply that any formal system that contains basic arithmetic, if sound (meaning that all theorems that can be proven are true), is necessarily incomplete (meaning that there are true theorems which cannot be proved in that system ). Whatever finite collection of number-theoretical axioms is taken as a foundation, Gödel showed how to construct a formal statement that is a true number-theoretical fact, but which does not follow from those axioms. Therefore no formal system is a complete axiomatization of full number theory. Modern logic is divided into recursion theory , model theory , and proof theory , and is closely linked to theoretical computer science|theoretical computer science , as well as to Category Theory .

Theoretical computer science includes computability theory (computation)|computability theory , computational complexity theory , and information theory . Computability theory examines the limitations of various theoretical models of the computer, including the most well known model – the Turing machine . Complexity theory is the study of tractability by computer; some problems, although theoretically solvable by computer, are so expensive in terms of time or space that solving them is likely to remain practically unfeasible, even with rapid advance of computer hardware. A famous problem is the " P = NP problem|P=NP? " problem, one of the Millennium Prize Problems ., P=NP, claymath.org Finally, information theory is concerned with the amount of data that can be stored on a given medium, and hence deals with concepts such as data compression|compression and Entropy (information theory)|entropy .

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| Mathematical logic || Set theory || Category theory || Theory of computation
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Pure mathematics

Quantity

The study of quantity starts with number s, first the familiar natural number s and integer s ("whole numbers") and arithmetical operations on them, which are characterized in arithmetic . The deeper properties of integers are studied in number theory , from which come such popular results as Fermat's Last Theorem . The twin prime conjecture and Goldbach's conjecture are two unsolved problems in number theory.

As the number system is further developed, the integers are recognized as a subset of the rational number s (" Fraction (mathematics)|fractions "). These, in turn, are contained within the real number s, which are used to represent Continuous function|continuous quantities. Real numbers are generalized to complex number s. These are the first steps of a hierarchy of numbers that goes on to include quarternion s and octonion s. Consideration of the natural numbers also leads to the transfinite number s, which formalize the concept of " infinity ". Another area of study is size, which leads to the cardinal number s and then to another conception of infinity: the aleph number s, which allow meaningful comparison of the size of infinitely large sets.

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1, 2, 3\,...\!

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...-2, -1, 0, 1, 2\,...\!

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-2, \frac{2}{3}, 1.21\,\!

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-e, \sqrt{2}, 3, \pi\,\!

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2, i, -2+3i, 2e^{i\frac{4\pi}{3\,\!

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| Natural number s|| Integer s || Rational number s || Real number s || Complex number s
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Structure

Many mathematical objects, such as set (mathematics)|sets of numbers and function (mathematics)|functions , exhibit internal structure as a consequence of operation (mathematics)|operations or relation (mathematics)|relations that are defined on the set. Mathematics then studies properties of those sets that can be expressed in terms of that structure; for instance number theory studies properties of the set of integer s that can be expressed in terms of arithmetic operations. Moreover, it frequently happens that different such structured sets (or Mathematical structure|structures ) exhibit similar properties, which makes it possible, by a further step of abstraction , to state axiom s for a class of structures, and then study at once the whole class of structures satisfying these axioms. Thus one can study group (mathematics)|groups , ring (mathematics)|rings , field (mathematics)|fields and other abstract systems; together such studies (for structures defined by algebraic operations) constitute the domain of abstract algebra . By its great generality, abstract algebra can often be applied to seemingly unrelated problems; for instance a number of ancient problems concerning compass and straightedge constructions were finally solved using Galois theory , which involves field theory and group theory. Another example of an algebraic theory is linear algebra , which is the general study of vector space s, whose elements called vector (geometric)|vectors have both quantity and direction, and can be used to model (relations between) points in space. This is one example of the phenomenon that the originally unrelated areas of geometry and algebra have very strong interactions in modern mathematics. Combinatorics studies ways of enumerating the number of objects that fit a given structure.

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| Combinatorics || Number theory || Group theory || Graph theory || Order theory
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Space

The study of space originates with geometry – in particular, Euclidean geometry . Trigonometry is the branch of mathematics that deals with relationships between the sides and the angles of triangles and with the trigonometric functions; it combines space and numbers, and encompasses the well-known Pythagorean theorem . The modern study of space generalizes these ideas to include higher-dimensional geometry, non-euclidean geometry|non-Euclidean geometries (which play a central role in general relativity ) and topology . Quantity and space both play a role in analytic geometry , differential geometry , and algebraic geometry . Convex geometry|Convex and discrete geometry was developed to solve problems in geometry of numbers|number theory and functional analysis but now is pursued with an eye on applications in convex optimization|optimization and computational geometry|computer science . Within differential geometry are the concepts of fiber bundles and calculus on manifold s, in particular, Vector calculus|vector and tensor calculus . Within algebraic geometry is the description of geometric objects as solution sets of polynomial equations, combining the concepts of quantity and space, and also the study of topological groups , which combine structure and space. Lie group s are used to study space, structure, and change. Topology in all its many ramifications may have been the greatest growth area in 20th century mathematics; it includes point-set topology , set-theoretic topology , algebraic topology and differential topology . In particular, instances of modern day topology are metrizability theory , axiomatic set theory , homotopy theory , and Morse theory . Topology also includes the now solved Poincaré conjecture . Other results in geometry and topology, including the four color theorem and Kepler conjecture , have been proved only with the help of computers.

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| Geometry || Trigonometry || Differential geometry || Topology || Fractal|Fractal geometry || Measure theory
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Change

Understanding and describing change is a common theme in the natural science s, and calculus was developed as a powerful tool to investigate it. function (mathematics)|Functions arise here, as a central concept describing a changing quantity. The rigorous study of real number s and functions of a real variable is known as real analysis , with complex analysis the equivalent field for the complex number s. Functional analysis focuses attention on (typically infinite-dimensional) space#Mathematics|spaces of functions. One of many applications of functional analysis is quantum mechanics . Many problems lead naturally to relationships between a quantity and its rate of change, and these are studied as differential equation s. Many phenomena in nature can be described by dynamical system s; chaos theory makes precise the ways in which many of these systems exhibit unpredictable yet still deterministic system (mathematics)|deterministic behavior.

Calculus

Applied mathematics

Applied mathematics concerns itself with mathematical methods that are typically used in science, engineering, business, and industry. Thus, "applied mathematics" is a mathematical science with specialized knowledge. The term "applied mathematics" also describes the professional specialty in which mathematicians work on practical problems; as a profession focused on practical problems, applied mathematics focuses on the formulation, study, and use of mathematical models in science , engineering , and other areas of mathematical practice.

In the past, practical applications have motivated the development of mathematical theories, which then became the subject of study in pure mathematics, where mathematics is developed primarily for its own sake. Thus, the activity of applied mathematics is vitally connected with research in pure mathematics .

Statistics and other decision sciences

Applied mathematics has significant overlap with the discipline of statistics , whose theory is formulated mathematically, especially with probability theory . Statisticians (working as part of a research project) "create data that makes sense" with random sampling and with randomized design of experiments|experiments ;
C. R. Rao|Rao, C.R. (1997) Statistics and Truth: Putting Chance to Work , World Scientific. ISBN 9810231113 the design of a statistical sample or experiment specifies the analysis of the data (before the data be available). When reconsidering data from experiments and samples or when analyzing data from observational study|observational studies , statisticians "make sense of the data" using the art of statistical model|modelling and the theory of statistical inference|inference – with model selection and estimation ; the estimated models and consequential Scientific method#Predictions from the hypothesis|predictions should be statistical hypothesis testing|tested on Scientific method#Evaluation and improvement|new data .Like other mathematical sciences such as physics and computer science , statistics is an autonomous discipline rather than a branch of applied mathematics. Like research physicists and computer scientists, research statisticians are mathematical scientists. Many statisticians have a degree in mathematics, and some statisticians are also mathematicians.

Statistical theory studies statistical decision theory|decision problem s such as minimizing the risk ( expected loss ) of a statistical action, such as using a statistical method|procedure in, for example, parameter estimation , hypothesis testing , and selection algorithm|selecting the best . In these traditional areas of mathematical statistics , a statistical-decision problem is formulated by minimizing an objective function , like expected loss or cost , under specific constraints: For example, a designing a survey often involves minimizing the cost of estimating a population mean with a given level of confidence.
Because of its use of mathematical optimization|optimization , the mathematical theory of statistics shares concerns with other decision science s, such as operations research , control theory , and mathematical economics . :

Computational mathematics

Computational mathematics proposes and studies methods for solving mathematical problem s that are typically too large for human numerical capacity. Numerical analysis studies methods for problems in analysis (mathematics)|analysis using functional analysis and approximation theory ; numerical analysis includes the study of approximation and discretization broadly with special concern for rounding error s. Numerical analysis and, more broadly, scientific computing also study non-analytic topics of mathematical science, especially algorithm ic numerical linear algebra|matrix & nbsp;and& nbsp; graph theory . Other areas of computational mathematics include computer algebra and symbolic computation .

Mathematical physics

Mathematical finance

Mathematics as profession

Arguably the most prestigious award in mathematics is the ," The Fields Medal is now indisputably the best known and most influential award in mathematics. " MonastyrskyRiehm established in 1936 and now awarded every 4 years. The Fields Medal is often considered a mathematical equivalent to the Nobel Prize .

The Wolf Prize in Mathematics , instituted in 1978, recognizes lifetime achievement, and another major international award, the Abel Prize , was introduced in 2003. The Chern Medal was introduced in 2010 to recognize lifetime achievement. These accolades are awarded in recognition of a particular body of work, which may be innovational, or provide a solution to an outstanding problem in an established field.

A famous list of 23 open problem s, called " Hilbert's problems ", was compiled in 1900 by German mathematician David Hilbert . This list achieved great celebrity among mathematicians, and at least nine of the problems have now been solved. A new list of seven important problems, titled the " Millennium Prize Problems ", was published in 2000. Solution of each of these problems carries a $1 million reward, and only one (the Riemann hypothesis ) is duplicated in Hilbert's problems.

Mathematics as science

|last=Zeidler
|first=Eberhard
|title=Oxford User's Guide to Mathematics
|location=Oxford, UK
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|year=2004
|isbn=0198507631
|page=1188

Gauss referred to mathematics as "the Queen of the Sciences".Waltershausen In the original Latin Regina Scientiarum , as well as in German language|German Königin der Wissenschaften , the word corresponding to science means a "field of knowledge", and this was the original meaning of "science" in English, also. Of course, mathematics is in this sense a field of knowledge. The specialization restricting the meaning of "science" to natural science follows the rise of Baconian method|Baconian science , which contrasted "natural science" to scholasticism , the Organon|Aristotelean method of inquiring from first principles . Of course, the role of empirical experimentation and observation is negligible in mathematics, compared to natural sciences such as experimental psychology|psychology , biology , or physics . Albert Einstein stated that "as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain; and as far as they are certain, they do not refer to reality. "Einstein, p. 28. The quote is Einstein's answer to the question: "how can it be that mathematics, being after all a product of human thought which is independent of experience, is so admirably appropriate to the objects of reality? " He, too, is concerned with The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences . More recently, Marcus du Sautoy has called mathematics 'the Queen of Science...the main driving force behind scientific discovery'. Marcus du Sautoy , , BBC Radio 4 , 01/10/2010.

Many philosophers believe that mathematics is not experimentally falsifiability|falsifiable , and thus not a science according to the definition of Karl Popper . However, in the 1930s Gödel's incompleteness theorems convinced many mathematicians that mathematics cannot be reduced to logic alone, and Karl Popper concluded that "most mathematical theories are, like those of physics and biology , hypothesis|hypothetico - deductive : pure mathematics therefore turns out to be much closer to the natural sciences whose hypotheses are conjectures, than it seemed even recently."Popper 1995, p. 56 Other thinkers, notably Imre Lakatos , have applied a version of falsificationism to mathematics itself.

An alternative view is that certain scientific fields (such as theoretical physics ) are mathematics with axioms that are intended to correspond to reality. In fact, the theoretical physicist, J. M. Ziman , proposed that science is public knowledge and thus includes mathematics.Ziman In any case, mathematics shares much in common with many fields in the physical sciences, notably the deductive reasoning|exploration of the logical consequences of assumptions. intuition (knowledge)|Intuition and experiment ation also play a role in the formulation of conjecture s in both mathematics and the (other) sciences. Experimental mathematics continues to grow in importance within mathematics, and computation and simulation are playing an increasing role in both the sciences and mathematics, weakening the objection that mathematics does not use the scientific method .
The opinions of mathematicians on this matter are varied. Many mathematicians feel that to call their area a science is to downplay the importance of its aesthetic side, and its history in the traditional seven liberal arts ; others feel that to ignore its connection to the sciences is to turn a blind eye to the fact that the interface between mathematics and its applications in science and engineering has driven much development in mathematics. One way this difference of viewpoint plays out is in the philosophical debate as to whether mathematics is created (as in art) or discovered (as in science). It is common to see university|universities divided into sections that include a division of Science and Mathematics , indicating that the fields are seen as being allied but that they do not coincide. In practice, mathematicians are typically grouped with scientists at the gross level but separated at finer levels. This is one of many issues considered in the philosophy of mathematics .

External links

Free Mathematics books collection.

Encyclopaedia of Mathematics online encyclopaedia from , Graduate-level reference work with over 8,000 entries, illuminating nearly 50,000 notions in mathematics.

The mathematics section of FreeScience library

Rusin, Dave: . A guided tour through the various branches of modern mathematics. (Can also be found at .)

Polyanin, Andrei: . An online resource focusing on algebraic, ordinary differential, partial differential ( mathematical physics ), integral, and other mathematical equations.

Cain, George: available free online.

, Wiki-style site that is intended to develop into a large store of useful mathematical problem-solving techniques.

, list information about classes of mathematical structures.

. The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive Extensive history and quotes from all famous mathematicians.

. A site and a language, that formalize mathematics from its foundations.

, a prize-winning site for students from age five from University of Cambridge|Cambridge University

, a wiki of open problems in mathematics

. An online mathematics encyclopedia under construction, focusing on modern mathematics. Uses the CC BY SA|Attribution-ShareAlike license, allowing article exchange with Wikipedia. Uses TeX markup.

Weisstein, Eric et al.: . An online encyclopedia of mathematics.

Patrick Jones' on Mathematics

.

Marcus du Sautoy|du Sautoy, Marcus , , BBC Radio 4 (2010).

A Q& A site for research level mathematics

Category:Mathematics|*

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nn:Matematikk
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pt:Matemática
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ro:Matematica
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sc:Matemàtica
sco:Mathematics
stq:Mathematik
sq:Matematika
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simple:Mathematics
ss:Tekubala
sk:Matematika
sl:Matematika
szl:Matymatyka
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su:Matematika
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tk:Matematika
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vec:Matemàtega
vi:Toán h?c
vo:Matemat
fiu-vro:Matõmaatiga
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wo:Xayma
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yo:Mathimátíkì
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