Numic



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Biography

Numic is a branch of the Uto-Aztecan languages|Uto-Aztecan language family. It includes seven languages spoken by Native Americans in the United States|Native American peoples traditionally living in the Great Basin , Colorado River basin, and southern Great Plains . The word Numic comes from the cognate word in all Numic languages for "person." For example, in the three Central Numic languages and the two Western Numic languages it is . In Kawaiisu language|Kawaiisu it is and in Colorado River language|Colorado River , and .

Classification

These languages are classified in three groups:

Central Numic languages

* Comanche language|Comanche Lila Wistrand Robinson & James Armagost. 1990. Comanche Dictionary and Grammar . Summer Institute of Linguistics and The University of Texas at Arlington Publications in Linguistics Publication 92. Dallas, Texas: The Summer Institute of Linguistics and The University of Texas at Arlington.
Jean O. Charney. 1993. A Grammar of Comanche . Studies in the Anthropology of North American Indians. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press.

* Timbisha language|Timbisha (a dialect chain with main regional varieties being Western, Central,Jon P. Dayley. 1989. Tümpisa (Panamint) Shoshone Grammar . University of California Publications in Linguistics Volume 115. Berkeley, California: University of California Press.
Jon P. Dayley. 1989. Tümpisa (Panamint) Shoshone Dictionary . University of California Publications in Linguistics Volume 116. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. and EasternJohn E. McLaughlin. 2006. Timbisha (Panamint) . Languages of the World/Materials 453. Muenchen: LINCOM Europa.)

* Shoshone language|Shoshoni (a dialect chain with main regional varieties being Western,Richley H. Crapo. 1976. Big Smokey Valley Shoshoni . Desert Research Institute Publications in the Social Sciences 10. Reno: University of Nevada Press.
Beverly Crum & Jon Dayley. 1993. Western Shoshoni Grammar . Boise State University Occasional Papers and Monographs in Cultural Anthropology and Linguistics Volume No. 1. Boise, Idaho: Department of Anthropology, Boise State University. Gosiute,Wick R. Miller. 1972. Newe Natekwinappeh: Shoshoni Stories and Dictionary . University of Utah Anthropological Papers 94. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.
Wick R. Miller. 1996. "Sketch of Shoshone, a Uto-Aztecan Language," Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 17, Languages . Ed. Ives Goddard. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. Pages 693–720.
Dirk Allen Elzinga. 1999. "The Consonants of Gosiute", University of Arizona Ph.D. dissertation. Northern,Drusilla Gould & Christopher Loether. 2002. An Introduction to the Shoshoni Language: Dammen Daigwape . Salt Lake City, Utah: The University of Utah Press. and EasternD.B. Shimkin. 1949. "Shoshone, I: Linguistic Sketch and Text," International Journal of American Linguistics 15:175-188.
D. B. Shimkin. 1949. "Shoshone II: Morpheme List," International Journal of American Linguistics 15.203-212.
Malinda Tidzump. 1970. Shoshone Thesaurus . Grand Forks, North Dakota.)

Southern Numic languages

* Kawaiisu language|Kawaiisu Maurice L. Zigmond, Curtis G. Booth, & Pamela Munro. 1991. Kawaiisu, A Grammar and Dictionary with Texts . Ed. Pamela Munro. University of California Publications in Linguistics Volume 119. Berkeley, California: University of California Press.

* Colorado River language|Colorado River (a dialect chain with main regional varieties being Chemehuevi,Margaret L. Press. 1979. Chemehuevi, A Grammar and Lexicon . University of California Publications in Linguistics Volume 92. Berkeley, California. University of California Press.
Laird, Carobeth. 1976. The Chemehuevis . Malki Museum Press, Banning, California. Southern Paiute,Edward Sapir. 1930. Southern Paiute, a Shoshonean Language . Reprinted in 1992 in: The Collected Works of Edward Sapir, X, Southern Paiute and Ute Linguistics and Ethnography . Ed. William Bright. Berlin: Mouton deGruyter.
Edward Sapir. 1931. Southern Paiute Dictionary . Reprinted in 1992 in: The Collected Works of Edward Sapir, X, Southern Paiute and Ute Linguistics and Ethnography . Ed. William Bright. Berlin: Mouton deGruyter.
Pamela A. Bunte. 1979. "Problems in Southern Paiute Syntax and Semantics," Indiana University Ph.D. dissertation. and UteTalmy Givón. 2011. Ute Reference Grammar . Culture and Language Use Volume 3. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Jean O. Charney. 1996. A Dictionary of the Southern Ute Language . Ignacio, Colorado: Ute Press.)

Western Numic languages

* Mono language (Native American)|Mono (two main dialects: EasternSidney M. Lamb. 1957. "Mono Grammar," University of California, Berkeley Ph.D. dissertation.
Rosalie Bethel, Paul V. Kroskrity, Christopher Loether, & Gregory A. Reinhardt. 1993. A Dictionary of Western Mono . 2nd edition. and WesternEvan J. Norris. 1986. "A Grammar Sketch and Comparative Study of Eastern Mono," University of California, San Diego Ph.D. dissertation.)

* Northern Paiute language|Northern Paiute Sven Liljeblad, Catherine S. Fowler, & Glenda Powell. 2012. The Northern Paiute-Bannock Dictionary, with an English-Northern Paiute-Bannock Finder List and a Northern Paiute-Bannock-English Finder List . Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. (a dialect chain with main regional varieties being Southern Nevada,Anonymous. 1987. Yerington Paiute Grammar . Anchorage, Alaska: Bilingual Education Services.
Arie Poldevaart. 1987. Paiute-English English-Paiute Dictionary . Yerington, Nevada: Yerington Paiute Tribe. Northern Nevada,Allen Snapp, John Anderson, & Joy Anderson. 1982. "Northern Paiute," Studies in Uto-Aztecan Grammar, Volume 3, Uto-Aztecan Grammatical Sketches . Ed. Ronald W. Langacker. Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics Publication Number 57, Volume III. Dallas, Texas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and The University of Texas at Arlington. Pages 1–92. Oregon,Timothy John Thornes. 2003. "A Northern Paiute Grammar with Texts," University of Oregon Ph.D. dissertation. and BannockSven Liljeblad. 1966-1967. "Northern Paiute Lessons," manuscript.
Sven Liljeblad. 1950. "Bannack I: Phonemes," International Journal of American Linguistics 16:126–131)

Apart from Comanche , each of these groups contains one language spoken in a small area in the southern Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada and valleys to the east (Mono, Timbisha, and Kawaiisu), and one language spoken in a much larger area extending to the north and east (Northern Paiute, Shoshone, and Ute-Southern Paiute). Some linguist s have taken this pattern as an indication that Numic speaking peoples expanded quite recently from a small core, perhaps near the Owens Valley , into their current range. This view is supported by lexicostatistical studies.James A. Goss. 1968. "Culture-Historical Inference from Utaztekan Linguistic Evidence," Utaztekan Prehistory . Ed. Earl H. Swanson, Jr. Occasional Papers of the Idaho State University Museum, Number 22. Pages 1–42. Fowler's reconstruction of Proto-Numic ethnobiology also points to the region of the southern Sierra Nevada as the homeland of Proto-Numic approximately two millennia ago.Catherine Louise Sweeney Fowler. 1972. "Comparative Numic Ethnobiology". University of Pittsburgh PhD dissertation. Recent mitochondrial DNA studies have supported this linguistic hypothesis.Frederika A. Kaestle and David Glenn Smith. 2001. "Ancient Mitochondrial DNA Evidence for Prehistoric Population Movement," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 115:1–12. The anthropologist Peter N. Jones thinks this evidence to be of a circumstantial nature,Peter N. Jones. 2005. Respect for the Ancestors: American Indian Cultural Affiliation in the American West. Boulder, CO: Bauu Institute. but this is a distinctly minority opinion among specialists in Numic.David B. Madsen & David Rhode, ed. 1994. Across the West: Human Population Movement and the Expansion of the Numa . University of Utah Press.

The Comanche split off from the Shoshone soon after they acquired horses around 1705. The Comanche language and the Shoshone language are quite similar although certain low-level consonant changes in Comanche have inhibited mutual intelligibility.John E. McLaughlin. 1992. “A Counter-Intuitive Solution in Central Numic Phonology,” International Journal of American Linguistics 58:158–181.
John E. McLaughlin. 2000. “Language Boundaries and Phonological Borrowing in the Central Numic Languages,” Uto-Aztecan: Temporal and Geographical Perspectives . Ed. Gene Casad and Thomas Willett. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. Pp. 293–304.

Major sound changes

The sound system of Numic is set forth in the following tables.David Iannucci. 1972. "Numic historical phonology," Cornell University PhD dissertation.
Michael Nichols. 1973. "Northern Paiute historical grammar," University of California, Berkeley PhD dissertation
Wick R. Miller. 1986. "Numic Languages," Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 11, Great Basin . Ed. by Warren L. d’Azevedo. Washington: Smithsonian Institution. Pages 98-106.
Wick Miller, Dirk Elzinga, and John E. McLaughlin. 2005. "Preaspiration and Gemination in Central Numic," International Journal of American Linguistics 71:413–444.

Vowels

Proto-Numic had an inventory of five vowels.

!! front !! back unrounded !! back rounded
High
Non-High

Consonants

Proto-Numic had the following consonant inventory:

Coronal !! Palatal consonant
Stop
Affricate
Fricative
Nasal
Semivowel

In addition to the above simple consonants, Proto-Numic also had nasal-stop/affricate clusters and all consonants except , , , and could be geminated. Between vowels short consonants were lenited.

Major Central Numic Consonant Changes

The major difference between Proto-Central Numic and Proto-Numic was the phonemic split of Proto-Numic geminate consonants into geminate consonants and preaspirated consonants. The conditioning factors involve stress shifts and are complex. The preaspirated consonants surfaced as voiceless fricatives, often preceded by a voiceless vowel.

Shoshoni and Comanche have both lost the velar nasals, merging them with or turning them into velar nasal-stop clusters. In Comanche, nasal-stop clusters have become simple stops, but and from these clusters do not lenite intervocalically. This change postdates the earliest record of Comanche from 1786, but precedes the 20th century. Geminated stops in Comanche have also become phonetically preaspirated.

Major Southern Numic Consonant Changes

Proto-Southern Numic preserved the Proto-Numic consonant system fairly intact, but the individual languages have undergone several changes.

Modern Kawaiisu has reanalyzed the nasal-stop clusters as voiced stops, although older recordings preserve some of the clusters. Geminated stops and affricates are voiceless and non-geminated stops and affricates are voiced fricatives. The velar nasals have fallen together with the alveolar nasals.

The dialects of Colorado River east of Chemehuevi have lost . The dialects east of Kaibab have collapsed the nasal-stop clusters with the geminated stops and affricate.

Major Western Numic Consonant Changes

Proto-Western Numic changed the nasal-stop clusters of Proto-Numic into voiced geminate stops. In Mono and all dialects of Northern Paiute except Southern Nevada, these voiced geminate stops have become voiceless.

Sample Numic Cognate Sets

The following table shows some sample Numic cognate sets that illustrate the above changes. Forms in the daughter languages are written in a broad phonetic transcription rather than a phonemic transcription that sometimes masks the differences between the forms. Italicized vowels and sonorants are voiceless.

Northern Paiute !! Timbisha language
IPA>*hoa 'hunt, trap'
IPA>*jaka 'cry'
IPA>*kaipa 'mountain'
IPA>*kuttsu 'bison'
IPA>*na?ka 'ear'
IPA>*oppimp? 'mesquite'
IPA>*pa?k?i 'fish'
IPA>*pu?ku 'pet, dog'
IPA>*t?pa 'pine nut'
IPA>*wo?ko 'pine'

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