Praying Mantis

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Biography

Mantodea (or mantises ) is an order of insect s that contains List of mantis genera and species|approximately 2,200 species in 15 families worldwide in temperate and tropical habitats. Most of the species are in the family Mantidae . Historically, the term mantid was used to refer to any member of the order because for most of the past century, only one family was recognized within the order; technically, however, the term only refers to this one family, meaning the species in the other 14 recently established families are not mantids, by definition (i.e., they are Empusidae|empusids , or Hymenopodidae|hymenopodids , etc.), and the term "mantises" should be used when referring to the entire order.

A colloquial name for the order in the United States is " praying mantises ", because of the typical " prayer -like" stance, although the eggcorn "preying mantis" is sometimes used since mantises are predation|predatory . In Europe and other regions, however, the name "praying mantis" refers to only a single species, Mantis religiosa . The closest relatives of mantises are the orders Isoptera (termites) and Blattodea (cockroaches), and these three groups together are sometimes ranked as an order rather than a superorder. They are sometimes confused with Phasmatodea|phasmid s (stick/leaf insects) and other elongated insects such as grasshopper s and Cricket (insect)|cricket s.

Etymology

The scientific name Mantodea comes from the Greek words meaning a prophet , and for form or shape. The name was coined in 1838 by the German entomologist Hermann Burmeister . The common term mantis is also from the Greek word for prophet.

Systematics

The systematics of mantises have long been disputed. Mantises, along with Phasmatodea|walking sticks , were once placed in the order Orthoptera with the cockroach es (now Blattodea ) and rock crawler s (now Grylloblattodea ). Kristensen (1991) combined Mantodea with the cockroaches and termite s into the order Dictyoptera .

Anatomy and morphology

The mantis thorax consist of a prothorax , a mesothorax , and a metathorax . In virtually all species the prothorax, to which are attached the head and forelegs, is much longer than the other two thoraces (the sole exceptions are the seven members of the Mantoida|Mantoididae family). The prothorax is also flexibly articulated, allowing for a wide range of movement of the front limbs while the remainder of the body remains more or less immobile.

The articulation of the head is also remarkably flexible, permitting nearly 300 degrees of movement in some species, allowing for a great range of vision (their compound eye s may contain up to 10,000 ommatidia and have a large binocular vision|binocular field of vision ). The dark spot on each eye is a pseudopupil . As their hunting relies heavily on vision, they are primarily diurnality|diurnal , but many species will fly at night, especially males in search of less-mobile females whom they can detect through pheromones . Flying at night allows these males to avoid many diurnal bird predators, and many mantises also have an auditory thoracic organ that assists them as they attempt to avoid capture by bats by detecting the presence of the bat's Animal echolocation|echolocation sounds and responding evasively.

Mantises have a wide range of wing morphologies and can be loosely categorized as being either macropterous (long-winged), brachypterous (short-winged), micropterous (vestigial-winged), or as apterous (wingless). If not wingless, a mantis will have two sets of wings: the outer wings, called the foreseeing or tegmen|tegmina , are usually narrow, opaque, and leathery and function as camouflage and as a shield for the inner wings, or hindwings—it is this much more delicate, broad, and transparent set that is actually used for flight, though in many of the brachypterous species these wings are only capable of producing minimal and very temporary lift and in the micropterous species they have no flight-related function at all. Also, in many macropterous species, the female will have much shorter wings than the male and will only rarely take flight.

The abdomen of all mantises consist of ten tergites with a corresponding set of nine sternites visible in males and seven visible in females. The slim abdomen of most males allows them to take flight more easily while the thicker abdomen of the females houses the reproductive machinery for generating the ootheca . The abdomen of both sexes ends in a pair of cercus|cerci .

Evolution

One theory for the evolution of the species is that mantises evolved from Blattoptera|proto-cockroaches , diverging from their common ancestors by the Cretaceous period , possibly from species like Raphidiomimula burmitica , a predatory cockroach with mantis-like forelegs. Possibly the earliest known modern mantis is Regiata scutra , although more common (and confirmed) is Santanmantis , a stilt-legged genus, also from the Cretaceous. Like their close termite cousins, though, mantises did not become common and diverse until the early Tertiary period .

Behavior

Diet and predatory behaviour

Mantises are exclusively predator y. They will only eat meat that they have caught themselves. Insects form the primary diet, but larger species have been known to prey on small scorpions, lizard s, frog s, bird s, snake s, fish , and even rodent s; they will prey upon any species small enough to be successfully captured and devoured. The time that the praying manits' diet expands the most is during the time when the female is carrying her eggs. Then she will become large and aggressive enough to eat these larger creatures. Most species of mantis are known to engage in Cannibalism (zoology)|cannibalism which happens most frequently during mating season. As is the case with sexually cannibalistic creatures, it is the female that eats the male after mating. This is done to provide nutrients for the developing young, and in many species the male is willing to let it occur, although in some species the male may still retain its natural instinct to escape.
The majority of mantises are ambush predators. They camouflage themselves and stand perfectly still. Then they just wait for their prey to stray too near. When a target does get close enough, the mantis then lashes out at remarkable speed, in fractions of the time it takes people to blink. Some ground and bark species, however, pursue their prey. Prey items are caught and held securely with grasping, spiked forelegs. The praying mantis usually holds its prey with one arm between the head and thorax, and the other on the abdomen. Then, if the prey does not resist, the mantis will eat it alive. However, if the prey does resist, the mantis will eat its head first, and then carry on with the body in peace. Unlike some exoskeleton predators, the praying mantis does not suck the fluids out of its victims body, but chews it in a manner similar to the way mammals do though its jaws close sideways, and not from the top or bottom like mammal mouths. It will devour most of its victim but is known to leave a few limbs. Chinese praying mantises have been found to gain benefits in survivorship, growth, and fecundity by supplementing their diet with pollen.Beckman, N. and L. E. Hurd. 2003. Pollen feeding and fitness in Praying Mantids: The vegetarion side of a tritrophic predator. Environmental Entomology 32:881-885.

Defense and camouflage

Generally, mantises protect themselves by camouflage and concealment. When directly threatened, many mantis species stand tall and spread their forelegs, with their wings fanning out wide. The fanning of the wings makes the mantis seem larger and more threatening, with some species having bright colors and patterns on their hind wings and inner surfaces of their front legs for this purpose. If harassment persists, a mantis may strike with its forelegs and attempt to pinch or bite. As part of the threat display, some species also may produce a hissing sound by expelling air from the abdominal spiracle s. When flying at night, at least some mantises are able to detect the Animal echolocation|echolocation sounds produced by bats, and when the frequency begins to increase rapidly, indicating an approaching bat, they will stop flying horizontally and begin a descending spiral toward the safety of the ground, often preceded by an aerial loop or spin.Yager, D., May, M. (1993) Coming in on a Wing and an Ear. (Cover Story). Natural History 102.1: 28. Praying Mantis Uses Ultrasonic Hearing to Dodge Bats

Mantises, like stick insect s, show rocking behaviour in which the insect makes rhythmic, repetitive side-to-side movements. Functions proposed for this behaviour include the enhancement of crypsis by means of the resemblance to vegetation moving in the wind. However, the repetitive swaying movements may be most important in allowing the insects to discriminate objects from the background by their relative movement, a visual mechanism typical of animals with simpler sight systems. Rocking movements by these generally sedentary insects may replace flying or running as a source of relative motion of objects in the visual field.O'Dea, JD. Eine zusatzliche oder alternative Funktion der 'kryptischen' Schaukelbewegung bei Gottesanbeterinnen und Stabschrecken (Mantodea, Phasmatodea). Entomologische Zeitschrift, 101, Nr. 1/2, 15 January 1991, 25–27.

Mantises are camouflage d, and most species make use of protective coloration to blend in with the leaf|foliage or Substrate (biology)|substrate , both to avoid predator s, and to better snare their prey. Various species have evolved to not only blend with the foliage, but to mimic it, appearing as either living or withered leaves, sticks, tree bark, blades of grass, flowers, or even stones. Some species in Africa and Australia are able to turn black after a molt following a fire in the region to blend in with the fire ravaged landscape (a type of Melanism#Adaptive melanism|adaptive melanism referred to as fire melanism ). While mantises can bite, they have no venom . They can also slash captors with their raptorial legs (which is often preceded by a threat display wherein the mantis will rear back and spread its front legs and wings (if present), often revealing vivid colors and/or eyespot (mimicry)|eyespots to startle a predator). Mantises are without chemical protection; many large insectivores will eat a mantis, including Scops owl s, shrike s, bullfrog s, chameleon s, and Milk Snake s.

Reproduction and life history

Sexual cannibalism is common among mantises in captivity, and under some circumstances may also be observed in the field. The female may start feeding by biting off the male’s head (as they do with regular prey), and if mating has begun, the male’s movements may become even more vigorous in its delivery of sperm. Early researchers thought that because copulatory movement is controlled by a ganglion in the abdomen, not the head, removal of the male’s head was a reproductive strategy by females to enhance fertilisation while obtaining sustenance. Later, this behavior appeared to be an artifact of intrusive laboratory observation. Whether the behavior in the field is natural, or also the result of distractions caused by the human observer, remains controversial. Mantises are highly visual organisms, and notice any disturbance occurring in the laboratory or field such as bright lights or moving scientists. Research by Liske and Davis (1984) http://www.snopes.com/critters/wild/mantis1.asp and others found (e.g. using video recorders in vacant rooms) that Chinese mantis es that had been fed ad libitum (so that they were not hungry) actually displayed elaborate courtship behavior when left undisturbed. The male engages the female in courtship dance, to change her interest from feeding to mating. Courtship display has also been observed in other species, but it does not hold for all mantises.

The reason for sexual cannibalism has been debated, with some considering submissive males to be achieving a selective advantage in their ability to produce offspring. This theory is supported by a quantifiable increase in the duration of copulation among males who are cannibalized, in some cases doubling both the duration and the chance of fertilization. This is further supported in a study where males were seen to approach hungry females with more caution, and were shown to remain mounted on hungry females for a longer time, indicating that males actively avoiding cannibalism may mate with multiple females. The act of dismounting is one of the most dangerous times for males during copulation, for it is at this time that females most frequently cannibalize their mates. This increase in mounting duration was thought to indicate that males would be more prone to wait for an opportune time to dismount from a hungry female rather than from a satiated female that would be less likely to cannibalize her mate. Some consider this to be an indication that male submissiveness does not inherently increase male reproductive success, rather that more fit males are likely to approach a female with caution and escape.J. P. Lelito and W. D. Brown (2006) Sexual conflict in a praying mantis. The American Naturalist 168 .Jonathan P. Lelito and William D. Brown (2006), Complicity or Conflict over Sexual Cannibalism? Male Risk Taking in the Praying Mantis Tenodera aridifolia sinensis . The American Naturalist 168:263-269.

The mating season in temperate climates typically begins in autumn. To mate following courtship, the male usually leaps onto the female’s back, and clasps her thorax and wing bases with his forelegs. He then arches his abdomen to deposit and store sperm in a special chamber near the tip of the female’s abdomen. The female then lays between 10 and 400 eggs, depending on the species. Eggs are typically deposited in a frothy mass that is produced by gland s in the abdomen. This froth then hardens, creating a protective capsule. The protective capsule and the egg mass is called an ootheca . Depending on the species, the ootheca can be attached to a flat surface, wrapped around a plant or even deposited in the ground. Despite the versatility and durability of the eggs, they are often preyed on, especially by several species of parasitic wasp s. In a few species, the mother guards the eggs.

As in related insect groups, mantises go through three stages of metamorphosis (biology)|metamorphosis : egg, nymph, and adult (mantises are among the hemimetabolism|hemimetabolic insects). The nymph and adult insect are structurally quite similar, except that the nymph is smaller and has no wings or functional genitalia. The nymphs are also sometimes colored differently from the adult, and the early stages are often mimicry|mimics of ant s. A mantis nymph increases in size (often changing its diet as it does so) by replacing its outer body covering with a sturdy, flexible exoskeleton and ecdysis|molting when needed. Molting can happen from five to ten times, depending on the species. After the final molt most species have wings, though some species are wingless or brachypterous ("short-winged"), particularly in the female sex.

In tropical species, the natural lifespan of a mantis in the wild is about 10–12 months, but some species kept in captivity have been sustained for 14 months. In colder areas, females will die during the winter (as well as any surviving males).

Pest control uses

Organic gardening|Organic gardeners who avoid pesticide s may encourage mantises as a form of biological pest control . Tens of thousands of mantis egg cases are sold each year in some garden stores for this purpose.

During fall, praying mantis females deposit an ootheca on the underside of a leaf or on a twig. If the egg case survives winter, the offspring, called nymphs, emerge in late spring or early summer. The nymphs have voracious appetites and typically cannibalize each other if they cannot find an adequate supply of aphids and other small insects. Egg cases are commercially available for placement in landscaping.

However, mantises prey on neutral and beneficial insects as well, basically eating anything they can successfully capture and devour.

Conservation status

Only one Spain|Spanish species, Apteromantis aptera , is listed as Lower Risk/Near Threatened. With one exception (the ground mantis Litaneutria minor in Canada , where it is rare — though it is common in the United States), North American mantises are not included among threatened or endangered species, though species in other parts of the world are under threat from habitat destruction . The European mantis ( Mantis religiosa ) is the state insect of Connecticut , but the General Statutes of Connecticut do not list any special protected status, as it is a non-native species from Europe and Africa.State of Connecticut, , August 5, 2002; accessed 2011.01.05.

There is a long-standing American urban legend that killing a praying mantis is illegal and subject to a fine. The origin of this myth is unknown but may have originated due to the low number of sightings of mantis and because of how beneficial they are to gardens in which they live. Long-standing American urban legend that killing a praying mantis is illegal. Snopes.com, June 29, 2007.

Introduced species

About 20 species are native to the United States , including the common Carolina mantis , with only one native to Canada . Two species (the Chinese mantis and the European mantis ) were deliberately introduced to serve as pest (organism)|pest control for agriculture, and have spread widely in both countries. Additionally, there is a strong market in the exotic pet trade for mantis species from Asia and Africa, and many species are bred in captivity for this purpose.

Cultural references

One of the earliest mantis references is in the ancient Chinese dictionary Erya , which gives its attributes in poetry (representing courage and fearlessness), as well as a brief description. A later text, the :zh:????| Jingshi Zhenglei Daguan Bencao ???????? ("Bencao of the Daguan period, Annotated and Arranged by Types, Based upon the Classics and Historical Works") from 1108, is impressively correct on the construction of the egg packages, the development cycle, the anatomy and even the function of the antennae.

Western Culture|Western descriptions of the biology and morphology of the mantises had become relatively accurate by the 18th century. Roesel von Rosenhof accurately illustrated and described them in the (Insect Entertainments). Aldous Huxley made philosophical observations about the nature of death while two mantises mated in the sight of two characters in the novel Island (novel)|Island (the species was Gongylus gongylodes ). The naturalist Gerald Durrell 's autobiography My Family and Other Animals includes an account of a very evenly matched battle between a mantis and a gecko . Based upon empirical evidence, the Australian mantis has been known to strike fear amongst the native Australian gecko causing great avoidance tendencies as it marks its territory.

M. C. Escher 's woodcut Dream depicts a human-sized mantis standing on a sleeping bishop.

The character Kamen Rider Chalice from Kamen Rider Blade has a design loosely based on the praying mantis, hence the reason Chalice's human guise, Hajime Aikawa, uses the form of the Undead (Kamen Rider)#mantis|Mantis Undead in order to assume the Rider identity while hiding that of the Undead (Kamen Rider)#Joker|Joker's .

Mythology

Southern African indigenous mythology refers to the praying mantis as a god in Khoi and Bushmen|San traditional myths and practices, and the word for the mantis in Afrikaans is (literally, a god of the Khoi).

Sources

Copyright Citations

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