Saffron

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Biography

Saffron (pronounced ) is a spice derived from the flower of Crocus sativus , commonly known as the saffron crocus . Crocus is a genus in the family Iridaceae . Each saffron crocus grows to and bears up to four flowers, each with three vivid crimson stigma (botany)|stigma s, which are each the distal end of a carpel . Together with the style (botany)|style s, or stalks that connect the stigmas to their host plant, the dried stigmas are used mainly in various cuisines as a seasoning and colouring agent. Saffron, long among the world's most costly spices by weight, is native to Southwest Asia and was first cultivated in Greece. As a genetically monomorphic clone, it was slowly propagated throughout much of Eurasia and was later brought to parts of North Africa, North America, and Oceania.

The saffron crocus, unknown in the wild, likely descends from Crocus cartwrightianus , which originated in Crete or Central Asia; C. thomasii and C. pallasii are other possible precursors. The saffron crocus is a polyploid|triploid that is "self-incompatible" and male sterile; it undergoes aberrant meiosis and is hence incapable of independent sexual reproduction—all propagation is by vegetative multiplication via manual "divide-and-set" of a starter clone or by interspecific hybridisation. If C. sativus is a mutant form of C. cartwrightianus , then it may have emerged via plant breeding , which would have selected for elongated stigmas, in late Bronze-Age Crete.
Saffron's bitter taste and iodoform - or hay-like fragrance result from the chemicals picrocrocin and safranal . It also contains a carotenoid dye, crocin , which imparts a rich saffron (color)|golden-yellow hue to dishes and textiles. History of saffron|Its recorded history is attested in a 7th-century BC Assyrian botanical treatise compiled under Ashurbanipal , and it has been Trade and use of saffron|traded and used for over four millennia. Iran now accounts for approximately 90 percent of the world production of saffron. Because each flower's stigmas need to be collected by hand and there are only a few per flower, saffron is the most expensive spice in the world.

Etymology

The ultimate origin of the English word wikt:saffron#English|saffron is, like that of the cultivated saffron clone itself, of somewhat uncertain origin. It immediately stems from the Latin word via the 12th-century Old French term wikt:safran#French|safran . Etymology beyond that point is conflicted. Safranum may derive via the Persian intercessor wikt:??????#Persian|?????? , or ''za'ferân . But some disputants argue that it instead ultimately came from the Arabic word wikt:??????#Arabic|?????????? , or za'faran . The latter comes from the adjective wikt:????#Arabic|??????? : a?far , meaning "yellow".

Species

Description

The domesticated saffron crocus, Crocus sativus , is an autumn- flowering plant|flowering perennial plant unknown in the wild. It is a sterile polyploidy|triploid form, possibly of the eastern Mediterranean autumn-flowering Crocus cartwrightianus , which is also known as "wild saffron" and originated in Central Asia. "Triploid" means that three homologous sets of chromosome s compose each specimen's genetic complement; C. sativus bears eight chromosomal bodies per set, making for 24 in total. The saffron crocus likely resulted when C. cartwrightianus was subjected to extensive artificial selection by growers seeking longer stigmas. C. thomasii and C. pallasii are other possible sources. Being sterile, the purple flowers of Crocus sativus fail to produce viable seeds; reproduction hinges on human assistance: corm s, underground bulb-like starch-storing organs, must be dug up, broken apart, and replanted. A corm survives for one season, producing via this vegetative division up to ten "cormlets" that can grow into new plants in the next season. The compact corms are small brown globules that can measure as large as in diameter, have a flat base, and are shrouded in a dense mat of parallel fibres; this coat is referred to as the "corm tunic". Corms also bear vertical fibres, thin and net-like, that grow up to 5& nbsp;cm above the plant's neck.

The plant grows to a height of , and sprouts 5–11 white and non- photosynthesis|photosynthetic leafs known as cataphyll s. They are membrane-like structures that cover and protect the crocus's 5–11 true leaves as they bud and develop. The latter are thin, straight, and blade-like green foliage leaves, which are 1–3& nbsp;mm in diameter, either expand after the flowers have opened ("hysteranthous") or do so simultaneously with their blooming ("synanthous"). C. sativus cataphylls are suspected by some to manifest prior to blooming when the plant is irrigation relatively early in the growing season. Its floral axes, or flower-bearing structures, bear bract eoles, or specialised leaves that sprout from the flower stems; the latter are known as pedicel (botany)|pedicel s. After Aestivation (botany)|aestivating in spring, the plant sends up its true leaves, each up to in length. In autumn, purple buds appear. Only in October, after most other flowering plants have released their seeds, do its brilliantly hued flowers develop; they range from a light pastel shade of lilac to a darker and more striated mauve. Upon flowering, plants average less than in height. A three-pronged style emerges from each flower. Each prong terminates with a vivid crimson stigma in length.

Cultivation

Crocus sativus thrives in the Mediterranean Maquis shrubland|maquis , an ecotype superficially resembling the North American chaparral , and similar climates where hot and dry summer breezes sweep semi-arid lands. It can nonetheless survive cold winters, tolerating frosts as low as and short periods of snow cover. Irrigation is required if grown outside of moist environments such as Kashmir, where annual rainfall averages; saffron-growing regions in Greece ( annually) and Spain () are far drier than the main cultivating Iranian regions. What makes this possible is the timing of the local wet seasons; generous spring rains and drier summers are optimal. Rain immediately preceding flowering boosts saffron yields; rainy or cold weather during flowering promotes disease and reduces yields. Persistently damp and hot conditions harm the crops, and rabbits, rats, and birds cause damage by digging up corms. Nematode s, leaf rust (fungus)|rusts , and corm rot pose other threats. Yet Bacillus subtilis inoculation may provide some benefit to growers by speeding corm growth and increasing stigma biomass yield.

The plants fare poorly in shady conditions; they grow best in full sunlight. Fields that slope towards the sunlight are optimal (i.e., south-sloping in the Northern Hemisphere). Planting is mostly done in June in the Northern Hemisphere, where corms are lodged deep; its roots, stems, and leaves can develop between October and February. Planting depth and corm spacing, in concert with climate, are critical factors in determining yields. Mother corms planted deeper yield higher-quality saffron, though form fewer flower buds and daughter corms. Italian growers optimise thread yield by planting deep and in rows apart; depths of optimise flower and corm production. Greek, Moroccan, and Spanish growers employ distinct depths and spacings that suit their locales.

C. sativus prefers friable, loose, low-density, well-watered, and well-drained clay- calcareous soils with high organic content. Traditional raised beds promote good drainage. Soil organic content was historically boosted via application of some 20–30& nbsp;tonnes of manure per hectare. Afterwards, and with no further manure application, corms were planted. After a period of dormancy through the summer, the corms send up their narrow leaves and begin to bud in early autumn. Only in mid-autumn do they flower. Harvests are by necessity a speedy affair: after blossoming at dawn, flowers quickly wilt as the day passes. All plants bloom within a window of one or two weeks. Roughly 150 flowers together yield but of dry saffron threads; to produce of dried saffron (or moist and freshly harvested), of flowers are needed; yields of dried saffron. One freshly picked flower yields an average of fresh saffron or dried.

Spice

Chemistry

Saffron contains more than 150 volatile and aroma-yielding compounds. It also has many nonvolatile active components, many of which are carotenoids, including zeaxanthin , lycopene , and various a- and ß- carotene s. However, saffron's golden yellow-orange colour is primarily the result of a-crocin. This crocin is trans- crocetin di-(ß-D- gentiobiose|gentiobiosyl ) ester ; it bears the IUPAC nomenclature|systematic (IUPAC) name 8,8-diapo-8,8-carotenoic acid. This means that the crocin underlying saffron's aroma is a digentiobiose ester of the carotenoid crocetin. Crocins themselves are a series of hydrophile|hydrophilic carotenoids that are either glycosyl|monoglycosyl or diglycosyl polyene esters of crocetin. Crocetin is a conjugated system|conjugated polyene carboxylic acid|dicarboxylic acid that is hydrophile|hydrophobic , and thus oil-soluble. When crocetin is esterification|esterified with two water-soluble gentiobioses, which are carbohydrate|sugars , a product results that is itself water-soluble. The resultant a-crocin is a carotenoid pigment that may comprise more than 10% of dry saffron's mass. The two esterified gentiobioses make a-crocin ideal for colouring water-based and non-fatty foods such as rice dishes.

The bitter glucoside picrocrocin is responsible for saffron's flavour. Picrocrocin ( chemical formula : ; systematic name: 4-(ß-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-2,6,6- trimethylcyclohex-1-ene-1-carboxaldehyde) is a union of an aldehyde sub-element known as safranal (systematic name: 2,6,6-trimethylcyclohexa-1,3-diene-1-carboxaldehyde) and a carbohydrate. It has insecticidal and pesticidal properties, and may comprise up to 4% of dry saffron. Picrocrocin is a truncated version of the carotenoid zeaxanthin that is produced via redox|oxidative cleavage, and is the glycoside of the terpene aldehyde safranal. The reddish-coloured zeaxanthin is, incidentally, one of the carotenoids naturally present within the retina of the human eye.
When saffron is dried after its harvest, the heat, combined with enzymatic action, splits picrocrocin to yield Monosaccharide#Isomerism|D – glucose and a free safranal molecule. Safranal, a essential oil|volatile oil, gives saffron much of its distinctive aroma. Safranal is less bitter than picrocrocin and may comprise up to 70% of dry saffron's volatile fraction in some samples. A second element underlying saffron's aroma is 2-hydroxy-4,4,6-trimethyl-2,5-cyclohexadien-1-one, the scent of which has been described as "saffron, dried hay like". Chemists found this to be the most powerful contributor to saffron's fragrance despite its being present in a lesser quantity than safranal. Dry saffron is highly sensitive to fluctuating pH levels, and rapidly breaks down chemically in the presence of light and redox|oxidizing agents. It must therefore be stored away in air-tight containers in order to minimise contact with atmospheric oxygen. Saffron is somewhat more resistant to heat.

Grades

Saffron is graded via laboratory measurement of crocin (colour), picrocrocin (taste), and safranal (fragrance) content. Determination of non-stigma content ("floral waste content") and other extraneous matter such as inorganic material (" Ash (analytical chemistry)|ash ") are also key. Grading standards are set by the International Organization for Standardization , a federation of national standards bodies. ISO 3632 deals exclusively with saffron and establishes four empirical colour intensity grades: IV (poorest), III, II, and I (finest quality). Samples are assigned grades by gauging the spice's crocin content, revealed by measurements of crocin-specific spectroscopic absorbance .
Graders measure absorbances of 440-nm light by dry saffron samples. Higher absorbances imply greater crocin concentration, and thus a greater colourative intensity. These data are measured through spectrophotometry reports at certified testing laboratories worldwide. These colour grades proceed from grades with absorbances lower than 80 (for all category IV saffron) up to 190 or greater (for category I). The world's finest samples (the selected most red-maroon tips of stigmas picked from the finest flowers) receive absorbance scores in excess of 250. Market prices for saffron types follow directly from these ISO scores. However, many growers, traders, and consumers reject such lab test numbers. They prefer a more holistic method of sampling batches of thread for taste, aroma, pliability, and other traits in a fashion similar to that practised by practised wine tasters.

Despite such attempts at quality control and standardisation, an extensive history of saffron adulteration—particularly among the cheapest grades—continues into modern times. Adulteration was first documented in Europe's Middle Ages, when those found selling adulterated saffron were executed under the Safranschou code. Typical methods include mixing in extraneous substances like beets, pomegranate fibres, red-dyed silk fibres, or the saffron crocus's tasteless and odourless yellow stamens. Other methods included dousing saffron fibres with viscid substances like honey or vegetable oil. However, powdered saffron is more prone to adulteration, with turmeric, paprika, and other powders used as diluting fillers. Adulteration can also consist of selling mislabelled mixes of different saffron grades. Thus, in India, high-grade Kashmiri saffron is often sold and mixed with cheaper Iranian imports; these mixes are then marketed as pure Kashmiri saffron, a development that has cost Kashmiri growers much of their income.

Varieties

The various saffron crocus cultivars give rise to thread types that are often regionally distributed and characteristically distinct. Varieties from Spain, including the tradenames "Spanish Superior" and "Creme", are generally mellower in colour, flavour, and aroma; they are graded by government-imposed standards. Italian varieties are slightly more potent than Spanish; the most intense varieties tend to be Iranian. Various "boutique" crops are available from New Zealand, France, Switzerland, England, the United States, and other countries, some of them organically grown. In the U.S., Pennsylvania Dutch saffron—known for its "earthy" notes—is marketed in small quantities.
Consumers may regard certain cultivars as "premium" quality. The "Aquila" saffron, or ''zafferano dell'Aquila'', is defined by high safranal and crocin content, distinctive thread shape, unusually pungent aroma, and intense colour; it is grown exclusively on eight hectares in the Navelli Valley of Italy's Abruzzo region, near L'Aquila . It was first introduced to Italy by a Dominican monk from Inquisition-era Spain. But the biggest saffron cultivation in Italy is in San Gavino Monreale , Sardinia, where it is grown on 40 hectares, representing 60% of Italian production; it too has unusually high crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal content. Another is the "Mongra" or "Lacha" saffron of Kashmir ( Crocus sativus 'Cashmirianus'), which is among the most difficult for consumers to obtain. Repeated droughts, blights, and crop failures in the Indian-controlled areas of Kashmir combine with an Indian export ban to contribute to its prohibitive overseas prices. Kashmiri saffron is recognisable by its dark maroon-purple hue; it among the world's darkest, which hints at strong flavour, aroma, and colourative effect.

History

The documented history of saffron cultivation spans more than three millennia. The wild precursor of domesticated saffron crocus was Crocus cartwrightianus . Human cultivators bred wild specimens by selecting for unusually long stigmas; thus, a sterile mutant form of C. cartwrightianus , C. sativus , likely emerged in late Bronze Age Crete.

Eastern

Saffron was detailed in a 7th-century BC Assyrian botanical reference compiled under Ashurbanipal . Documentation of saffron's use over the span of 4,000 years in the treatment of some 90 illnesses has been uncovered. Saffron-based pigments have indeed been found in 50,000 year-old depictions of prehistoric places in northwest Iran. The Sumerians later used wild-growing saffron in their remedies and magical potions. Saffron was an article of long-distance trade before the Minoan palace culture's 2nd millennium BC peak. Ancient Persians cultivated Persian saffron ( Crocus sativus 'Hausknechtii') in Derbena, Isfahan, and Khorasan by the 10th century BC. At such sites, saffron threads were woven into textiles, ritually offered to divinities, and used in dyes, perfumes, medicines, and body washes. Saffron threads would thus be scattered across beds and mixed into hot teas as a curative for bouts of melancholy. Non-Persians also feared the Persians' usage of saffron as a drugging agent and aphrodisiac. During his Asian campaigns, Alexander the Great used Persian saffron in his infusions, rice, and baths as a curative for battle wounds. Alexander's troops imitated the practice from the Persians and brought saffron-bathing to Greece.
Conflicting theories explain saffron's arrival in South Asia. Kashmiri and Chinese accounts date its arrival anywhere between 900–2500 years ago. Historians studying ancient Persian records date the arrival to sometime prior to 500 BC, attributing it to a Persian transplantation of saffron corms to stock new gardens and parks. Phoenicians then marketed Kashmiri saffron as a dye and a treatment for melancholy. Its use in foods and dyes subsequently spread throughout South Asia. Buddhist monks wear saffron-coloured robes; however, the robes are not dyed with costly saffron but turmeric , a less expensive dye, or jackfruit . Monks' robes are dyed the same color to show equality with each other, and turmeric or ochre were the cheapest, most readily available dyes. Gamboge is now used to dye the robes.
Some historians believe that saffron came to China with Mongol invaders from Persia. Yet saffron is mentioned in ancient Chinese medical texts, including the forty-volume pharmacopoeia titled Shennong Bencaojing (?????: "Shennong's Great Herbal", also known as ''Pen Ts'ao or Pun Tsao ), a tome dating from 200–300 BC. Traditionally credited to the fabled Yan ("Fire") Emperor (??) Shennong , it discusses 252 phytochemical-based medical treatments for various disorders. Nevertheless, around the 3rd century AD, the Chinese were referring to saffron as having a Kashmiri provenance. According to Chinese herbalist Wan Zhen, "he habitat of saffron is in Kashmir, where people grow it principally to offer it to the Buddha." Wan also reflected on how it was used in his time: "The flower withers after a few days, and then the saffron is obtained. It is valued for its uniform yellow colour. It can be used to aromatise wine."

Western

Miscellaneous

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Category:Saffron|
Category:Iridaceae
Category:Arabic loanwords
Category:Persian loanwords
Category:Chemopreventive agents
Category:Flowers
Category:Herbs
Category:Incense
Category:Food colorings
Category:Medicinal plants
Category:Spices

af:Saffraan
ar:??????
an:Crocus sativus
bn:??????
bg:??????
ca:Safrà
cs:Šafrán setý
da:Safran
de:Safran
et:Safran
es:Crocus sativus
eo:Safrano
eu:Azafrai
fa:??????
fr:Safran (épice)
gl:Azafrán
ko:???
hi:????
hr:Šafran
io:Safrano
id:Kuma-kuma
it:Crocus sativus
he:?????
kn:?????
ku:Gula hesretê
lad:Alsafran
la:Safranum
lv:Safrans
lt:Daržinis krokas
hu:Jóféle sáfrány
ml:????????
ms:Safron
my:???????
nl:Saffraan
ja:????
frr:Safraan
no:Safran
nn:Safran
oc:Crocus sativus
pnb:????
pl:Szafran uprawny
pt:Açafrão
ro:?ofran
ru:?????? ????????
sa:??????
simple:Saffron
sk:Šafran siaty
sl:Pravi žafran
sr:??????
fi:Sahrami
sv:Saffranskrokus
tl:Crocus sativus
ta:???????????
te:?????? ??????
th:?????????
tr:Safran
uk:?????? ????????
ur:??????
zh:???

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