Slave

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Biography

Slavery is a system under which people are treated as property to be bought and sold, and are Unfree labour|forced to work . Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth, and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to demand Remuneration|compensation . Historically, slavery was institutionally recognized by many societies; in more recent times slavery has been outlawed in most societies but continues through the practices of debt bondage , indentured servant|indentured servitude , serfdom , domestic worker|domestic servants kept in captivity, certain adoption s in which children are forced to work as slaves, military use of children|child soldiers , and forced marriage .

Slavery predates written records and has existed in many culture s. The number of slaves today is higher than at any point in History of slavery|history , remaining as high as 12 million to 27 million, though this is probably the smallest proportion of the world's population in history. Most are Debt bondage|debt slaves , largely in South Asia , who are under debt bondage incurred by Loan shark|lenders , sometimes even for generations. Human trafficking is primarily used for forcing woman|women and child ren into Prostitution|sex industries .

In pre-industrial societies, slaves and their labour were economically extremely important. In modern mechanised societies, there is less need for sheer massive manpower; Norbert Wiener wrote that "mechanical labor has most of the economic properties of slave labor, though... it does not involve the direct demoralizing effects of human cruelty."

Etymology

The English word slave comes from Old French sclave , from the Medieval Latin sclavus , from the Byzantine Greek s???ß??.

The word s???ß??, in turn, comes from the Slav#Ethnonym|ethnonym 'Slav' ; Oxford English Dictionary , 2nd edition 1989, s.v. 'slave'Encyclopædia Britannica, an older theory connected it to the Greek verb skyleúo 'to strip a slain enemy'.F. Kluge, Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache . 1891, siehe «Sklave».

Types

Chattel slavery

Chattel slavery, so named because people are treated as the personal property , chattels, of an owner and are bought and sold as commodities, is the original form of slavery. When taking these chattels across national borders it is referred to as Human Trafficking especially when these slaves provide sexual services.

Bonded labor

Debt bondage or bonded labor occurs when a person pledges himself or herself against a loan. The services required to repay the debt, and their duration, may be undefined. Debt bondage can be passed on from generation to generation, with children required to pay off their parents' debt. It is the most widespread form of slavery today.

Forced labor

Forced labor is when an individual is forced to work against their will, under threat of violence or other punishment, with restrictions on their freedom. It is also used to describe all types of slavery and may also include institutions not commonly classified as slavery, such as serfdom , conscription and penal labour|penal labor .

History

Early history

Evidence of slavery predates written records, and has existed in many culture s."". Encyclopædia Britannica. Prehistoric graves from about 8000 BC in Lower Egypt suggest that a Libyan people enslaved a Bushmen|San -like tribe.Thomas, Hugh: The Slave Trade Simon and Schuster; Rockefeller Centre; New York, New York; 1997 Slavery is rare among hunter-gatherer populations, as slavery is a system of social stratification. Mass slavery also requires economic surpluses and a high population density to be viable. Due to these factors, the practice of slavery would have only proliferated after the invention of agriculture during the Neolithic Revolution about 11,000 years ago.

In the earliest known records slavery is treated as an established institution. The Code of Hammurabi (ca. 1760 BC), for example, stated that death was prescribed for anyone who helped a slave to escape, as well as for anyone who sheltered a fugitive. The Bible refers uncritically to slavery as an established institution.

Slavery was known in almost every ancient civilization, including Sumer , Ancient Egypt , Ancient China , the Akkadian Empire , Assyria , Bronze Age India|Ancient India , Ancient Greece , the Roman Empire , the Islam ic Caliphate , and the List of pre-Columbian cultures|pre-Columbian civilizations of the Americas . Such institutions were a mixture of debt bondage|debt-slavery , punishment for crime, the enslavement of prisoner of war|prisoners of war , child abandonment , and the birth of slave children to slaves.Demography, Geography and the Sources of Roman Slaves, by W. V. Harris: The Journal of Roman Studies, 1999

Classical Antiquity

Records of Slavery in ancient Greece|slavery in Ancient Greece go as far back as Mycenaean Greece . It is certain that Classical Athens had the largest slave population, with as many as 80,000 in the 6th and 5th centuries BC; Lauffer, S. "Die Bergwerkssklaven von Laureion", Abhandlungen no.12 (1956), p.916. two to four fifths of the population were slaves.. Britannica Student Encyclopædia. As the Roman Republic expanded outward, Roman slavery|entire populations were enslaved , thus creating an ample supply from all over Europe and the Mediterranean. Greeks , Illyrians , Berber people|Berbers , Germanic peoples|Germans , Britons (historical)|Britons , Thracians , Gauls , Jews , Arab people|Arabs , and many more were slaves used not only for labour, but also for amusement (e.g. gladiator s and sexual slavery|sex slaves ). This oppression by an elite minority eventually led to slave rebellion|slave revolts (see Roman Servile Wars ); the Third Servile War led by Spartacus being the most famous and severe. By the late Republican era, slavery had become a vital economic pillar in the wealth of Rome, as well as a very significant part of Roman society. At the least, some 25% of the population of Ancient Rome was enslaved. According to some scholars, slaves represented 35% or more of
Italy 's population.Schiavone Aldo (2000), The End of the Past. Ancient Rome and the Modern West , Cambridge Mass.: Harvard University Press, p.112. In the city of Rome alone, under the Roman Empire , there were about 400,000 slaves. Western New England College. During the millennium from the emergence of the Roman Empire to its eventual decline, at least 100 million people were captured or sold as slaves throughout the Mediterranean and its hinterlands."" Walter Scheidel . Stanford University.

Middle Ages

Medieval Europe

The Early Middle Ages|early medieval slave trade was mainly confined to the South and East: the Byzantine Empire and the Muslim world were the destinations, paganism|pagan Central Europe|Central and Eastern Europe , along with the Caucasus and Tartary , were important sources. Viking , Arab people|Arab , Greeks|Greek and Jews|Jewish merchants (known as Radhanite s) were all involved in the slave trade during the Middle Ages#Early Middle Ages|Early Middle Ages . The trade in European slaves reached a peak in the 10th century following the Zanj Rebellion|Zanj rebellion which dampened the use of African slaves in the Arab world." ". Michael Moïssey Postan, Edward Miller, Cynthia Postan (1987). Cambridge University Press . p.417. ISBN 0521087090

Spain in the Middle Ages|Medieval Spain and History of Portugal|Portugal were the scene of almost constant Muslim invasion of the predominantly Christian area. Periodic raiding expeditions were sent from Al-Andalus to ravage the Iberian Christian kingdoms, bringing back booty and slaves. In raid against Lisbon , Portugal in 1189, for example, the Almohad dynasty|Almohad caliph Yaqub al-Mansur took 3,000 female and child captives, while his governor of Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba , in a subsequent attack upon Silves Municipality, Portugal|Silves , Portugal in 1191, took 3,000 Christian slaves. From the 11th to the 19th century, North Africa n Barbary corsairs|Barbary Pirates engaged in Ghazw|Razzias , raids on European coastal towns, to capture Christian slaves to sell at Islam and slavery#Oriental slave trade|slave markets in places such as Algeria and Morocco .

At the time of the Domesday Book , compiled in 1086, nearly 10% of the England|English population were slaves. Slavery in medieval Europe|Slavery in early medieval Europe was so common that Catholic Church|the Roman Catholic Church repeatedly prohibited it — or at least the export of Christian slaves to non-Christian lands was prohibited at e.g. the Council of Koblenz (922), the Council of London (1102) , and the Council of Armagh (1171). In 1452, Pope Nicholas V issued the papal bull Dum Diversas , granting Afonso V of Portugal the right to reduce any "Saracens, pagans and any other unbelievers" to hereditary race-slavery which legitimized the slave trade, at least as a result of war. The approval of slavery under these conditions was reaffirmed and extended in his Romanus Pontifex bull of 1455. However, Pope Paul III forbade enslavement of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas|native American s in 1537 in his papal bull Sublimus Dei . Dominican friars who arrived at the Spanish settlement at Santo Domingo strongly denounced the enslavement of the local native Americans. Along with other priests, they opposed their treatment as unjust and illegal in an audience with the Spanish king and in the subsequent royal commission.

The Byzantine–Ottoman Wars|Byzantine-Ottoman wars and the Ottoman wars in Europe brought large numbers of slaves into the List of countries by Muslim population|Islamic world . From the mid to late 14th, through early 18th centuries, the Ottoman devsirme – janissary system enslaved and forcibly converted to Islam an estimated 500,000 to one million non–Muslim (primarily Balkan Christian) adolescent males.A.E. Vacalopoulos. The Greek Nation , 1453—1669, New Brunswick, New Jersey, Rutgers University Press, 1976, p.41; Vasiliki Papoulia, The Impact of Devshirme on Greek Society, in War and Society in East Central Europe , Editor—in—Chief, Bela K. Kiraly, 1982, Vol. II, pp. 561—562. After the Battle of Lepanto (1571)|Battle of Lepanto approximately 12,000 Christian galley slaves were freed from the Ottoman fleet . A few years later Cervantes , who later wrote the famous book Don Quixote , was captured by corsairs and enslaved in Algiers, attempted to escape and was eventually ransom ed; he wrote about the plight of Christian slaves in his fiction. Eastern Europe suffered a series of Mongol and Tatar states in Europe|Tatar invasions , the goal of which was to loot and capture slaves into jasyr . Seventy-five Crimean Tatar raids were recorded into Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Poland–Lithuania between 1474–1569. There were more than 100,000 Russian captives in the Khanate of Kazan|Kazan Khanate alone in 1551."" (PDF). Eizo Matsuki, Mediterranean Studies Group at Hitotsubashi University.
Approximately 10–20% of the rural population of Carolingian Empire|Carolingian Europe consisted of slaves. In Western Europe slavery largely disappeared by the later Middle Ages .. Historymedren.about.com The trade of slaves in England was made illegal in 1102,. First published in Bristol Magazine July 2006. although England went on to become very active in the lucrative Atlantic slave trade from the seventeenth to the early nineteenth century. Thrall dom in Scandinavia was finally abolished in the mid-14th century.. Nordisk familjebok / Uggleupplagan. 30. Tromsdalstind – Urakami /159–160, 1920. (In Swedish) Slavery persisted longer in Eastern Europe . Slavery in Poland was forbidden in the 15th century; in Lithuania , slavery was formally abolished in 1588; they were replaced by the second serfdom . In Kievan Rus'|Kievan Rus and Grand Duchy of Moscow|Muscovy , the slaves were usually classified as kholop s.

Islamic world

In early Islam ic states of the western Sudan, including Ghana Empire|Ghana (750–1076), Mali Empire|Mali (1235–1645), Bamana Empire|Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai Empire|Songhai (1275–1591), about a third of the population were enslaved.

Ibn Battuta tells us several times that he was given or purchased slaves."" The great 14th-century scholar Ibn Khaldun , wrote: "the Black nations are, as a rule, submissive to slavery, because (Blacks) have little that is (essentially) human and possess attributes that are quite similar to those of dumb animals"." ". Bernard Lewis (1992). Oxford University Press US . p.53. ISBN 0-19-505326-5 Slaves were purchased or captured on the frontiers of the Muslim world|Islamic world and then imported to the major centers, where there were slave markets from which they were widely distributed.. Encyclopædia Britannica. . JewishEncyclopedia.com, K.S. Lal, Aditya Prakashan, New Delhi In the 9th and 10th centuries, the black Zanj slaves may have constituted at least a half of the total population in lower Iraq .. Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History. At the same time, many tens of thousands of slaves in the region were also imported from Central Asia and the Caucasus .. Encyclopædia Britannica. Many slaves were taken in the wars with the Christian nations of #Medieval Europe|medieval Europe .

Modern history

Europe

Slavery remained a major institution in Tsardom of Russia|Russia until 1723, when Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great converted the household slaves into house serfs. Russian agricultural slaves were formally converted into serfs earlier in 1679.. Encyclopædia Britannica. Russian Empire|Russia 's more than 23 million privately-held Serfdom in Russia|serfs were freed from their lords by an edict of Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II in 1861."". Encyclopædia Britannica. State-owned serfs were emancipation reform of 1861|emancipated in 1866.Mee, Arthur; Hammerton, J. A.; Innes, Arthur D.;, 1907, Carmelite House, London; at page 5193.

During the Second World War (1939–1945) Forced labor in Germany during World War II|Nazi Germany effectively enslaved many people , both those considered undesirable and citizens of countries they conquered.

Africa

In Senegambia Confederation|Senegambia , between 1300 and 1900, close to one-third of the population was enslaved. In Sierra Leone in the 19th century about half of the population consisted of enslaved people.

In the 19th century at least half the population was enslaved among the Duala people|Duala of the Cameroon , the Igbo people|Igbo and other peoples of the lower Niger River|Niger , the Kingdom of Kongo|Kongo , and the Kasanje kingdom and Chokwe people|Chokwe of Angola . Among the The Ashanti|Ashanti and Yoruba people|Yoruba a third of the population consisted of enslaved people.

The population of the Kanem Empire|Kanem (1600–1800) was about a third-enslaved. It was perhaps 40% in Bornu Empire|Bornu (1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900 from one- to two-thirds of the entire population of the Fulani War|Fulani jihad states consisted of slaves.

The population of the Sokoto caliphate formed by Hausa-Fulani|Fulanis and Hausas in northern Nigeria and Cameroon was half-slave in the 19th century. Between 65% to 90% population of Arab people|Arab - Swahili people|Swahili Zanzibar was enslaved. The Swahili-Arab slave trade reached its height about 150 years ago, when, for example, approximately 20,000 slaves were considered to be carried yearly from Nkhotakota on Lake Malawi to Kilwa."". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Roughly half the population of Madagascar was enslaved.

According to the Encyclopedia of African History , "It is estimated that by the 1890s the largest slave population of the world, about 2 million people, was concentrated in the territories of the Sokoto Caliphate . The use of slave labor was extensive, especially in agriculture."Kevin Shillington (2005). Encyclopedia of African history . Michigan University Press. p.1401. ISBN 1579584551, Project MUSE – Journal of World History The Anti-Slavery Society estimated there were 2 million slaves in Ethiopia in the early 1930s out of an estimated population of between 8 and 16 million.

Hugh Clapperton in 1824 believed that half the population of Kano were enslaved people." ". Humphrey J. Fisher (2001). C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. p.33. ISBN 1850655243 According to W. A. Veenhoven, "The German doctor, Gustav Nachtigal , an eye-witness, believed that for every slave who arrived at a market three or four died on the way... John Scott Keltie|Keltie ( The Partition of Africa , London, 1920) believes that for every slave the Arabs brought to the coast at least six died on the way or during the slavers' raid. David Livingstone|Livingstone puts the figure as high as ten to one."Willem Adriaan Veenhoven (1977). " ". Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p.440. ISBN 9024719569
One of the most famous slave traders on the East African coast was Tippu Tip , who was himself the grandson of an enslaved African. The prazeros slave traders, descendants of Portuguese and Africans, operated along the Zambezi . North of the Zambezi, the waYao and Makua people played a similar role as professional slave raiders and traders. The Nyamwezi slave traders operated further north under the leadership of Msiri and Mirambo .. BBC World Service |The Story of Africa.

Asia

As late as 1908, women slaves were still sold in the Ottoman Empire .. BBC – Religion & Ethics A slave market for captured Russians|Russian and Persian people|Persian slaves was centred in the Central Asia n khanate of Khanate of Khiva|Khiva . According to Sir Henry Bartle Frere (who sat on the Viceroy's Council), there were an estimated 8 or 9 million slaves in Indian subcontinent|India in 1841. About 15% of the population of Malabar District|Malabar were slaves. Slavery was abolished in British India by the Slavery in India|Indian Slavery Act V. of 1843. In Istanbul about one-fifth of the population consisted of slaves.

In East Asia , the Qing Dynasty|Imperial government formally abolished slavery in China in 1906, and the law became effective in 1910. Slave rebellion in China at the end of the 17th and the beginning of the 18th century was so extensive that owners eventually converted the institution into a female-dominated one."". Encyclopædia Britannica. The Social classes of Tibet|Nangzan in Tibet an history were, according to Chinese sources, hereditary household slaves. A. Tom Grunfeld , , Revised Edition, Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1996, p. 15.

Indigenous slaves existed in Korea . Slavery was officially abolished with the Gabo Reform of 1894 but continued in reality until 1930. During the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910) about 30% to 50% of the Koreans|Korean population were slaves. In late 16th century Japan slavery as such was officially banned, but forms of contract and indentured labor persisted alongside the period penal codes' forced labor .Lewis, James Bryant. (2003). -32.

In Southeast Asia , a quarter to a third of seventeenth- to twentieth-century populations in some areas of Thailand and Burma were slaves. The Hill tribe#South-East Asia|hill tribe people in Indochina were "hunted incessantly and carried off as slaves by the Siamese (Thai), the Anamites (Vietnamese), and the Cambodians.""". Kyoto Review of South East Asia; (Colquhoun 1885:53). A Siamese military campaign in Laos in 1876 was described by a British observer as having been "transformed into slave-hunting raids on a large scale".. The Kyoto Review of South Asia

Americas

Slavery in the Americas had a contentious history, dating back Aztec slavery|at least to the Aztecs , http://www.daviddfriedman.com/Academic/Course_Pages/legal_systems_very_different_10/final_papers_04/andrade_aztec_04.html and played a major role in the history and evolution of some countries, triggering at least Haitian Revolution|one revolution and American Civil War|one civil war , as well as numerous rebellions.

Slavery was prominent in Africa , across the Atlantic Ocean from the Americas, long before the beginnings of the transatlantic slave trade.. Encyclopædia Britannica. The maritime town of Lagos, Portugal|Lagos , Portugal, Europe, was the first slave market created in Portugal (one of the earliest colonizers of the Americas) for the sale of imported African slaves – the Mercado de Escravos , opened in 1444.Goodman, Joan E. (2001). . Mikaya Press, ISBN 0-9650493-7-X.de Oliveira Marques, António Henrique R. (1972). History of Portugal . Columbia University Press , ISBN 0-231-03159-9, p. 158-160, 362–370. In 1441, the first slaves were brought to Portugal from northern Mauritania .

By 1552 Black people|black African slaves made up 10 percent of the population of Lisbon .Thomas Foster Earle, K. J. P. Lowe "Black Africans in Renaissance Europe" p.157 David Northrup, "Africa's Discovery of Europe" p.8 () In the second half of the 16th century, the Crown gave up the monopoly on slave trade and the focus of European trade in African slaves shifted from import to Europe to slave transports directly to tropical colonies in the Americas – in the case of Portugal, especially Brazil . In the 15th century one third of the slaves were resold to the African market in exchange of gold.Klein, Herbert. The Atlantic Slave Trade .

Spain had to fight against the relatively powerful civilizations of the New World . The Spanish people|Spanish conquest of the indigenous peoples in the Americas included using the Natives as forced labour , part of the wider Atlantic slave trade . The Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies|Spanish colonies were the first Europeans to use African slaves in the New World on islands such as Cuba and Hispaniola .
Bartolomé de Las Casas a 16th-century Dominican Order|Dominican friar and Spanish people|Spanish historian participated in campaigns in Cuba (at Bayamo and Camagüey ) and was present at the massacre of Hatuey ; his observation of that massacre led him to fight for a social movement away from the use of natives as slaves and towards the importation of African Blacks as slaves. Also, the alarming decline in the Indigenous peoples of the Americas|native population had spurred the first royal laws protecting the native population ( Laws of Burgos|Laws of Burgos, 1512–1513 ).

The first African slaves arrived in Hispaniola in 1501. In 1518, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles I of Spain agreed to ship slaves directly from Africa. England played a prominent role in the Atlantic slave trade . The " Triangular trade#Atlantic triangular slave trade|slave triangle " was pioneered by Francis Drake and his associates. A black man named Anthony Johnson (colonist)|Anthony Johnson of Virginia first introduced permanent black slavery in the 1650s by becoming the first holder in America of permanent black slaves. By 1750, slavery was a legal institution in all of the 13 European colonization of the Americas|American colonies , and the profits of the slave trade and of Caribbean|West Indian plantations amounted to 5% of the Economic history of the United Kingdom|British economy at the time of the Industrial Revolution .

The Transatlantic slave trade peaked in the late 18th century, when the largest number of slaves were captured on raiding expeditions into the interior of West Africa. These expeditions were typically carried out by List of kingdoms in pre-colonial Africa|African kingdoms , such as the Oyo Empire|Oyo empire ( Yoruba people|Yoruba ), the Ashanti Empire ,"". The New York Times. April 22, 2010. the kingdom of Dahomey , Alexander Ives Bortolot. Department of Art History and Archaeology, Columbia University. and the Aro Confederacy .. Source: U.S. Library of Congress. Europeans rarely entered the interior of Africa, due to fierce African resistance. The slaves were brought to coastal outposts where they were traded for goods.

An estimated 12 million Africans arrived in the Americas from the 16th to the 19th centuries. Of these, an estimated 645,000 were brought to what is now the United States . The usual estimate is that about 15 per cent of slaves died during the voyage, with mortality rates considerably higher in Africa itself in the process of capturing and transporting indigenous peoples to the ships. Approximately 6 million black Africans were killed by others in tribal wars.

The white citizens of Virginia decided to treat the first Africans in Virginia as indentured servant s. Over half of all European immigrants to Colonial America during the 17th and 18th centuries arrived as indentured servants.. Deanna Barker, Frontier Resources . In 1655, John Casor , a black man, became the first legally recognized slave in the present United States.. Philip Burnham, American Heritage Magazine. According to the 1860 United States Census|1860 U.S. census , 393,975 individuals, representing 8% of all US families, owned 3,950,528 slaves., The Civil War Home Page. One-third of Southern families owned slaves. "Small Truth Papering Over a Big Lie"

The largest number of slaves were shipped to Brazil .Stephen D. Behrendt, David Richardson, and David Eltis, W. E. B. Du Bois Institute|W. E. B. Du Bois Institute for African and African-American Research , Harvard University . Based on "records for 27,233 voyages that set out to obtain slaves for the Americas". In the Spanish viceroyalty of New Granada , corresponding mainly to modern Panama , Colombia , and Venezuela , the free black population in 1789 was 420,000, whereas African slaves numbered only 20,000. Free blacks also outnumbered slaves in Brazil. In Cuba , by contrast, free blacks made up only 15% in 1827; and in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti ) it was a mere 5% in 1789."". History.com. Some half-million slaves, most of them born in Africa, worked the booming plantations of Saint-Domingue., San Francisco Chronicle , May 30, 2004.

Author Charles Rappleye argued that

Although the trans-Atlantic slave trade ended shortly after the American Revolution, slavery remained a central economic institution in the Southern states of the United States , from where slavery expanded with the westward movement of population.Richard S. Newman, Transformation of American abolitionism: fighting slavery in the early Republic chapter 1 Historian Peter Kolchin wrote, "By breaking up existing families and forcing slaves to relocate far from everyone and everything they knew" this migration "replicated (if on a reduced level) many of horrors" of the Atlantic slave trade.Kolchin p. 96

Historian Ira Berlin called this forced migration the Second Middle Passage . Characterizing it as the "central event" in the life of a slave between the American Revolution and the Civil War, Berlin wrote that whether they were uprooted themselves or simply lived in fear that they or their families would be involuntarily moved, "the massive deportation traumatized black people, both slave and free."Berlin pp. 161–162

By 1860, 500,000 slaves had grown to 4 million. As long as slavery expanded, it remained profitable and powerful and was unlikely to disappear. Although complete statistics are lacking, it is estimated that 1,000,000 slaves moved west from the Old South between 1790 and 1860.Berlin pp. 168–169. Kolchin p. 96. Kolchin notes that Fogel and Engerman maintained that 84% of slaves moved with their families but "most other scholars assign far greater weight... to slave sales." Ransome (p. 582) notes that Fogel and Engermann based their conclusions on the study of some counties in Maryland in the 1830s and attempt to extrapolate that as reflective of the entire South over the entire period.

Most of the slaves were moved from Maryland , Virginia , and the The Carolinas|Carolinas . Michael Tadman, in a 1989 book Speculators and Slaves: Masters, Traders, and Slaves in the Old South , indicates that 60–70% of interregional migrations were the result of the sale of slaves. In 1820 a child in the Upper South had a 30% chance to be sold south by 1860.

Middle East

According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Ethnic groups in Europe|Europeans were captured by Barbary corsairs|Barbary pirates and sold as slaves in North Africa and Ottoman Empire between the 16th and 19th centuries." ". Robert Davis (2004) ISBN 1-4039-4551-9Rees Davies, , BBC , July 1, 2003 There was also an extensive trade in Christian slaves in the Black Sea region for several centuries until the Crimean Khanate was destroyed by the Russian Empire in 1783. In the 1570s close to 20,000 slaves a year were being sold in the Crimean port of Feodosiya|Kaffa . in A. Ascher, B. K. Kiraly, and T. Halasi-Kun (eds), The Mutual Effects of the Islamic and Judeo-Christian Worlds: The East European Pattern, Brooklyn College, 1979, pp. 25–43. The slaves were captured in southern Russia, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Poland-Lithuania , Moldavia , Wallachia , and Circassia by Tatars|Tatar horsemen in a trade known as the "harvesting of the steppe". In Podolia alone, about one-third of all the villages were destroyed or abandoned between 1578 and 1583.Subtelny, Orest (1988). " ". p 106 Some researchers estimate that altogether more than 3 million people were captured and enslaved during the time of the Crimean Khanate.Fisher 'Muscovy and the Black Sea Slave Trade', pp. 580—582. By Mike Bennighof, Ph.D. September 2007 It is estimated that up to 75% of the Crimean population consisted of slaves or
freedmen.

The Arab slave trade lasted more than a millennium. As recently as the early 1960s, Saudi Arabia ’s slave population was estimated at 300,000." ". Willem Adriaan Veenhoven, Winifred Crum Ewing, Stichting Plurale Samenlevingen (1976). p.452. ISBN 90-247-1779-5 Along with Yemen, the Saudis abolished slavery only in 1962. Slaves in the Arab World came from many different regions, including Sub-Saharan Africa (mainly Zanj )," ". Bernard Lewis (1992). Oxford University Press US . p.53. ISBN 0195053265 the Caucasus (mainly Circassians ), Central Asia (mainly Tartary|Tartars ), and Central Europe|Central and Eastern Europe (mainly Saqaliba ).

Under Oman i Arabs Zanzibar became East Africa 's main slave port, with as many as 50,000 enslaved Africans passing through every year during the 19th century.. Nationalgeographic.com, BBC News, March 30, 2007 Some historians estimate that between 11 and 18 million African slaves crossed the Red Sea , Indian Ocean , and Sahara Desert from 650 AD to 1900 AD., BBC News, September 3, 2001 Eduard Rüppell described the heavy mortality of the enslaved Sudanese before reaching Egypt: "after the Daftardar bey's 1822 campaign in the southern Nuba mountains, nearly 40,000 slaves were captured. However, through bad treatment, disease and desert travel barely 5000 made it to Egypt."Gwyn Campbell, Suzanne Miers, Joseph Calder Miller (2007). " ". Ohio University Press. p.173. ISBN 082141724X

Central and Eastern European slaves were generally known as Saqaliba (i.e., Slavs)., Oxford Univ Press 1994. The Moors , starting in the 8th century, also raided coastal areas around the Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean and Atlantic Ocean , and became known as the Barbary corsairs|Barbary pirates . It is estimated that they captured 1.25 million white slaves from Western Europe and North America between the 16th and 19th centuries.Davis, Robert. Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800 .Based on "records for 27,233 voyages that set out to obtain slaves for the Americas". Stephen Behrendt, "Transatlantic Slave Trade", Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience (New York: Basic Civitas Books, 1999), ISBN 0-465-00071-1. The mortality rate was very high. For instance, when plague broke out in Algiers ' overcrowded slave pens in 1662, some said that it carried off 10,000–20,000 of the city's 30,000 captives." ". Robert Davis (2004). p.18. ISBN 1-4039-4551-9.

Present day

There are more slaves today than at any point in History of slavery|history , remaining as high as 12 million to 27 million, even though slavery is now outlawed in all countries. Several estimates of the number of slaves in the world have been provided. According to a broad definition of slavery used by Kevin Bales of Free the Slaves (FTS), an advocacy group linked with Anti-Slavery International , there were 27 million people in slavery in 1999, spread all over the world.Kevin Bales, Disposable People In 2005, the International Labour Organization provided an estimate of 12.3 million forced labourers in the world. Thanks to the , the work of the ILO has been spearheaded in this field since early 2002. The Programme has successfully raised global awareness and understanding of modern forced labour ; assisted governments to develop and implement new laws, policies and action plans; developed and disseminated on key aspects of forced labour and human trafficking ; implemented innovative programmes which combine policy development, capacity building of law enforcement and labour market institutions, and targeted, of direct support for both prevention of forced labour and identification and rehabilitation of its victims. Siddharth Kara has also provided an estimate of 28.4 million slaves at the end of 2006 divided into the following three categories: bonded labour / debt bondage (18.1 million), forced labour (7.6 million), and trafficked slaves (2.7 million). Kara provides a dynamic model to calculate the number of slaves in the world each year, with an estimated 29.2 million at the end of 2009.

The Middle East Quarterly reports that slavery is still endemic in Sudan . In June and July 2007, 2007 Chinese slave scandal|570 people who had been enslaved by brick manufacturers in Shanxi and Henan were freed by the Chinese government. Among those rescued were 69 children. In response, the Chinese government assembled a force of 35,000 police to check northern Chinese brick kilns for slaves, sent dozens of kiln supervisors to prison, punished 95 officials in Shanxi province for dereliction of duty, and sentenced one kiln foreman to death for killing an enslaved worker. In 2008, the Nepal ese government abolished the Haliya system of forced labour , freeing about 20,000 people."". ABC News. September 8, 2008. An estimated 40 million people in India , most of them Dalit s or "untouchables", are Debt bondage|bonded workers, working in slave-like conditions in order to pay off debts.Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, India: The current situation of Dalits, especially in Punjab; and any protest rallies held by dalits in Punjab in 1997 and 1998 and subsequent reaction by the authorities; , 1 April 1999, IND31487.E, available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6ad3914.html "". Human Rights Watch . January 23, 2003 Though slavery was officially abolished in China in 1910, the practice continues unofficially in some regions of the country. In Brazil more than 5,000 slaves were rescued by authorities in 2008 as part of a government initiative to eradicate slavery.
In Slavery in Mauritania|Mauritania , the last country to abolish slavery (in 1981), it is estimated that up to 600,000 men, women and children, or 20% of the population, are enslaved with many used as Debt bondage|bonded labour . Slavery in modern Africa|Slavery in Mauritania was criminalized in August 2007. In Niger , slavery is also a current phenomenon. A Nigerien study has found that more than 800,000 people are enslaved, almost 8% of the population. Many pygmies in the Republic of Congo and Democratic Republic of Congo belong from birth to Bantu peoples|Bantus in a system of slavery., New York Times Some tribal sheiks in Iraq still keep Afro-Arab|blacks , called Abd , which means servant or slave in Arabic, as slaves., Los Angeles Times Child slavery has commonly been used in the production of cash crop s and mining. According to the United States Department of State|U.S. Department of State , more than 109,000 children were working on cocoa bean|cocoa farms alone in Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) in "the worst forms of child labour|child labor " in 2002., 2005 Human rights|Human Rights Report on Côte d'Ivoire Poverty has forced at least 225,000 Haiti an children to work as restavec s (unpaid household servants); the United Nations considers this to be a modern-day form of slavery., USATODAY.com, 2009-12-22. Retrieved 2010-02-16.

Trafficking in human beings (also called human trafficking) is one method of obtaining slaves. Victims are typically recruited through deceit or trickery (such as a false job offer, false migration offer, or false marriage offer), sale by family members, recruitment by former slaves, or outright abduction. Victims are forced into a "debt slavery" situation by coercion, deception, fraud, intimidation, isolation, threat, physical force, debt bondage or even force-feeding with drug abuse|drugs of abuse to control their victims. "Annually, according to U.S. Government-sponsored research completed in 2006, approximately 800,000 people are trafficked across national borders, which does not include millions trafficked within their own countries. Approximately 80 percent of transnational victims are women and girls and up to 50 percent are minors," reports the U.S. Department of State in a 2008 study. Women News Network – WNN, Dec 05, 2008

While the majority of victims are women, and sometimes children, who are forced prostitution|forced into prostitution (in which case the practice is called sex trafficking), victims also include men, women and children who are forced into manual labour . Due to the illegal nature of human trafficking, its exact extent is unknown. A U.S. Government report published in 2005, estimates that 600,000 to 800,000 people worldwide are trafficked across borders each year. This figure does not include those who are trafficked internally. Another research effort revealed that between 1.5 million and 1.8 million individuals are trafficked either internally or internationally each year, 500,000 to 600,000 of whom are sex trafficking victims.

Abolitionism

Slavery has existed, in one form or another, through the whole of recorded history of the world|human history — as have, in various periods, movements to free large or distinct groups of slaves.

The Greek Stoics advocated the brotherhood of humanity and the natural equality of all human beings, and consistently critiqued slavery as against the law of nature. Emperor Wang Mang abolished slave trading (although not slavery) in China in 9 Common Era|CE .

The Spanish colonization of the Americas sparked a discussion about the right to enslave native Americans. A prominent critic of slavery in the Spanish New World colonies was Bartolomé de las Casas , who opposed the enslavement of Native Americans, and later also of Africans in America.

One of the first protests against the enslavement of Africans came from German and Dutch Religious Society of Friends|Quakers in Pennsylvania in 1688. One of the most significant milestones in the campaign to abolish slavery throughout the world occurred in England in 1772, with British judge William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield|Lord Mansfield , whose opinion in Somersett's Case was widely taken to have held that slavery was illegal in England. This judgement also laid down the principle that slavery contracted in other jurisdictions (such as the American colonies) could not be enforced in England.S.M.Wise, Though the Heavens May Fall , Pimlico (2005) In 1777, Vermont became the first portion of what would become the United States to abolish slavery (at the time Vermont was an independent nation). In 1794, under the Jacobins, French Revolution|Revolutionary France abolished slavery.. Online Encyclopedia There were celebrations in 2007 to commemorate the 200th anniversary of the Abolition of the slave trade in the United Kingdom through the work of the British Anti-Slavery Society .
William Wilberforce received much of the credit although the groundwork was an anti-slavery essay by Thomas Clarkson . Wilberforce was also urged by his close friend, Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger , to make the issue his own, and was also given support by reformed Evangelical John Newton . The Slave Trade Act 1807|Slave Trade Act was passed by the British Parliament on 25 March 1807, making the slave trade illegal throughout the British Empire , Wilberforce also campaigned for abolition of slavery in the British Empire, which he lived to see in the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 . After the 1807 act abolishing the slave trade was passed, these campaigners switched to encouraging other countries to follow suit, notably France and the British colonies. In 1839, the world's oldest international human rights organization, Anti-Slavery International , was formed in Britain by Joseph Sturge , which campaigned to outlaw slavery in other countries. UNESCO. Retrieved October 20, 2011

Between 1808 and 1860, the British West Africa Squadron seized approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard.. BBC – Devon – Abolition Action was also taken against African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade, for example against "the usurping King of Lagos ", deposed in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers.
In the United States , abolitionist pressure produced a series of small steps towards emancipation. After January 1, 1808, the importation of slaves into the United States was prohibited, New York Times. December 30, 2007. but not the Slavery in the United States#Internal slave trade|internal slave trade , nor involvement in the international slave trade externally. Legal slavery persisted; and those slaves already in the U.S. were Emancipation Proclamation|legally emancipated only in 1863. Many American abolitionists took an active role in opposing slavery by supporting the Underground Railroad . Violence soon erupted, with the anti-slavery forces led by John Brown (abolitionist)|John Brown , and Bleeding Kansas , involving anti-slavery and pro-slavery settlers, became a symbol for the nationwide clash over slavery. By 1860 the total number of slaves reached almost four million, and the American Civil War , beginning in 1861, led to the end of slavery in the United States.. Department of the Interior National Park Service.

In 1863 Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation , which freed slaves held in the Confederate States; the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution (1865) prohibited slavery throughout the country.
In the 1860s, David Livingstone 's reports of atrocities within the Arab slave trade in Africa stirred up the interest of the British public, reviving the flagging abolitionist movement. The Royal Navy throughout the 1870s attempted to suppress "this abominable Eastern trade", at Zanzibar in particular.

On December 10, 1948, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights , which declared freedom from slavery is an internationally recognized human rights|human right . Article 4 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states:

Groups such as the American Anti-Slavery Group , Anti-Slavery International , Free the Slaves , the Anti-Slavery Society , and the Norwegian Anti-Slavery Society continue to campaign to rid the world of slavery.

Legal actions

In November 2006, the International Labour Organization announced it will be seeking "to prosecute members of the ruling State Peace and Development Council|Myanmar junta for crimes against humanity" over the continuous Unfree labour|forced labour of its citizens by the military at the International Court of Justice . According to the International Labour Organization|International Labor Organization (ILO), an estimated 800,000 people are subject to forced labour in Burma|Myanmar . It is estimated that in the last fifty years 40-50 million people have been sent to laogai , the system of forced labor camps in the People's Republic of China ."". Agence France-Presse . November 8, 2008.

The Economic Community of West African States|Ecowas Court of Justice is hearing the case of Hadijatou Mani in late 2008, where Ms. Mani hopes to compel the government of Niger to end slavery in its jurisdiction. Cases brought by her in local courts have failed so far.

Economics

Economists have attempted to model during which circumstances slavery (and variants such as serfdom ) appear and disappear. One observation is that slavery becomes more desirable for land owners when land is abundant but labour is not, so paid workers can demand high wages. If labour is abundant but land is scarce, then it becomes more costly for the land owners to have guards for the slaves than to employ paid workers who can only demand low wages due to the competition. Thus first slavery and then serfdom gradually decreased in Europe as the population grew. It was reintroduced in the Americas and in Russia (serfdom) as large new land areas with few people became available.. In his books, Time on the Cross: The Economics of American Negro Slavery|Time on the Cross and Without Consent or Contract: the Rise and Fall of American Slavery, Robert Fogel maintains that slavery was in fact a profitable method of production, especially on bigger plantations growing cotton that fetched high prices in the world market. It gave whites in the South higher average incomes than those in the North, but most of the money was spent on buying slaves and plantations.

Slavery is more common when the labour done is relatively simple and thus easy to supervise, such as large scale growing of a single crop. It is much more difficult and costly to check that slaves are doing their best and with good quality when they are doing complex tasks. Therefore, slavery was seen as the most efficient method of production for large scale crops like sugar and cotton, whose output was based on economies of scale. This enabled a gang system of labor to be prominent on large plantations where field hands were monitored and worked with factory-like precision. Each work gang was based on an internal division of labor that not only assigned every member of the gang to a precise task but simultaneously made his or her performance dependent on the actions of the others. The hoe hands chopped out the weeds that surrounded the cotton plants as well as excessive sprouts. The plow gangs followed behind, stirring the soil near the rows of cotton plants and tossing it back around the plants. Thus, the gang system worked like an early version of the assembly line later to be found in factories.

Critics since the 18th century have argued that slavery tends to retard technological advancement, since the focus is on increasing the number of slaves doing simple tasks rather than upgrading the efficiency of labour. Because of this, theoretical knowledge and learning in Greece—and later in Rome—was not applied to ease physical labour or improve manufacturing.

Adam Smith made the argument that free labor was economically better than slave labor, and argued further that slavery in Europe ended during the Middle Ages, and then only after both the church and state were separate, independent and strong institutions, that it is nearly impossible to end slavery in a free, democratic and republican forms of governments since many of its legislators or political figures were slave owners, and would not punish themselves, and that slaves would be better able to gain their freedom when there was centralized government, or a central authority like a king or the church. Similar arguments appear later in the works of Auguste Comte , especially when it comes to Adam Smith's belief in the separation of powers or what Comte called the "separation of the spiritual and the temporal" during the Middle Ages and the end of slavery, and Smith's criticism of masters, past and present. As Smith stated in the Lectures on Jurisprudence, "The great power of the clergy thus concurring with that of the king set the slaves at liberty. But it was absolutely necessary both that the authority of the king and of the clergy should be great. Where ever any one of these was wanting, slavery still continues."

The weighted average global sales price of a slave is calculated to be approximately $340, with a high of $1,895 for the average trafficked sex slave, and a low of $40 to $50 for debt bondage slaves in part of Asia and Africa.
Worldwide slavery is a criminal offense but slave owners can get very high returns for their risk.name="slavery1"/ According to researcher Siddharth Kara , the profits generated worldwide by all forms of slavery in 2007 were $91.2 billion. That is second only to drug trafficking in terms of global criminal enterprises. The weighted average annual profits generated by a slave in 2007 was $3,175, with a low of an average $950 for bonded labor and $29,210 for a trafficked sex slave. Approximately forty percent of all slave profits each year are generated by trafficked sex slaves, representing slightly more than 4 percent of the world's 29 million slaves.

Robert E. Wright has developed a Conceptual model|model that helps to predict when firms (individuals, companies) will be more likely to use slaves rather than wage workers, indentured servants , family members, or other types of laborers .Robert E. Wright, Fubarnomics (Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus, 2010), 83-116.

Apologies

On May 21, 2001, the National Assembly of France passed the Christiane Taubira|Taubira law, recognizing slavery as a crime against humanity . Apologies on behalf of African nations, for their role in trading their countrymen into slavery, remain an open issue since slavery was practiced in Africa even before the first Europeans arrived and the Atlantic slave trade was performed with a high degree of involvement of several African societies. The black slave market was supplied by well-established slave trade networks controlled by local African societies and individuals.Adu Boahen, Topics In West African History p. 110 Indeed, as already mentioned in this article, slavery persists in several areas of West Africa until the present day.

There is adequate evidence citing case after case of African control of segments of the trade. Several African nations such as the Calabar and other southern parts of Nigeria had economies depended solely on the trade. African peoples such as the Imbangala of Angola and the Nyamwezi of Tanzania would serve as middlemen or roving bands warring with other African nations to capture Africans for Europeans.

Several historians have made important contributions to the global understanding of the African side of the Atlantic slave trade . By arguing that African merchants determined the assemblage of trade goods accepted in exchange for slaves, many historians argue for African agency and ultimately a shared responsibility for the slave trade.. Translated by Márcia Lameirinhas. Tempos e Espaços Africanos Series, vol. 3. Lisbon: Editora Vulgata, 2002. ISBN 978-972-8427-24-5.

The issue of an apology is linked to reparations for slavery and is still being pursued by a number of entities across the world. For example, the Jamaican Reparations Movement approved its declaration and action Plan.

In September, 2006, it was reported, BBC News , 2006-09-22 that the UK Government may issue a "statement of regret" over slavery, an act that was followed through by a "public statement of sorrow" from Tony Blair on November 27, 2006., BBC News , 2006-11-27

On February 25, 2007 the Virginia|state of Virginia resolved to 'profoundly regret' and apologize for its role in the institution of slavery. Unique and the first of its kind in the U.S., the apology was unanimously passed in both Houses as Virginia approached the 400th anniversary of the founding of Jamestown, Virginia|Jamestown , where the first slaves were imported into North America in 1619.

On August 24, 2007, Mayor Ken Livingstone of London , United Kingdom apologized publicly for Britain's role in colonial History of slavery|slave trade . "You can look across there to see the institutions that still have the benefit of the wealth they created from slavery," he said pointing towards the financial district. He claimed that London was still tainted by the horrors of slavery. Jesse Jackson praised Livingstone, and added that reparations should be made, one of his common arguments.

On July 30, 2008, the United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing for American slavery and subsequent discriminatory laws. NPR. Retrieved October 20, 2011 In June 2009, the US Senate passed a resolution apologizing to African-Americans for the "fundamental injustice, cruelty, brutality, and inhumanity of slavery"."". Telegraph. June 19, 2009

Reparations

There have been movements to achieve reparations for those formerly held as slaves, or sometimes their descendants. Claims for reparations for being held in slavery are handled as a Private law|civil law matter in almost every country. This is often decried as a serious problem, since former slaves' relative lack of money means they often have limited access to a potentially expensive and futile Service of process|legal process . Mandatory systems of fines and reparations paid to an as yet undetermined group of claimants from fines, paid by unspecified parties, and collected by authorities have been proposed by advocates to alleviate this "civil court problem." Since in almost all cases there are no living ex-slaves or living ex-slave owners these movements have gained little traction. In nearly all cases the judiciary|judicial system has ruled that the statute of limitations on these possible claims has long since expired.

Other uses of the term

The word slavery is often used as a pejorative to describe any activity in which one is coerced into performing.

Many argue that Conscription|military drafts and other forms of coerced government labour constitute state-operated slavery.See the Conscription#Slavery|Slavery section in the Conscription article for more. and both by Ron Paul by Peter Krembs by Dave Kopel refers to both the military and national service requirements of Italy as slavery.

Some libertarianism|libertarians and anarcho-capitalism|anarcho-capitalists view government tax ation as a form of slavery.E.g.,

Some proponents of animal rights apply the term slavery to the condition of some or all human-owned animals, arguing that their status is comparable to that of human slaves.Spiegel, Marjorie. The Dreaded Comparison: Human and Animal Slavery , New York: Mirror Books, 1996.

Movies

Year	Original title cite web	English title (if different)	Format	Film genre	Director	Actor	Country	Book	Author
1960	Spartacus (1960 film)	& nbsp;	& nbsp;	Historical drama film, Historical epic	Stanley Kubrick	Kirk Douglas	USA	& nbsp;	& nbsp;
1969	Burn!	Burn!	& nbsp;	Drama	Gillo Pontecorvo	Marlon Brando	Italy	& nbsp;	& nbsp;
1977	Roots (TV miniseries)	& nbsp;	TV series	Drama, Historical drama film	Chomsky , John Erman	& nbsp;	USA	Roots: The Saga of an American Family	Alex Haley
1997	Amistad (film)	& nbsp;	& nbsp;	Drama	Steven Spielberg	& nbsp;	USA	& nbsp;	& nbsp;
1998	Beloved (film)	& nbsp;	& nbsp;	Drama	Jonathan Demme	& nbsp;	USA	& nbsp;	Toni Morrison
2005	500 Years Later	& nbsp;	& nbsp;	Documentary	Owen 'Alik Shahadah	& nbsp;	UK, USA	& nbsp;	& nbsp;
2006	Amazing Grace (2006 film)	& nbsp;	& nbsp;	Drama, Historical drama film	Michael Apted	& nbsp;	UK, USA	& nbsp;	& nbsp;
2007	Trade (film)	& nbsp;	& nbsp;	Thriller	Marco Kreuzpaintner	& nbsp;	GER, USA	& nbsp;	& nbsp;

Copyright Citations

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