Streetlight

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A street light , lamppost , street lamp , light standard , or lamp standard is a raised source of light on the edge of a road or walkway, which is turned on or lit at a certain time every night. Modern lamps may also have light-sensitive photocell s to turn them on at dusk , off at dawn , or activate automatically in dark weather . In older lighting this function would have been performed with the aid of a solar dial . It is not uncommon for street lights to be on posts which have wires strung between them, such as on telephone pole s or utility pole s.

History

The earliest lamps were used by Greek and Roman civilizations, where light primarily served the purpose of security, both to protect the wanderer from tripping over something on the path as well as keeping the potential robbers at bay. At that time oil lamps were used predominantly as they provided a long-lasting and moderate flame. The Romans had a word 'laternarius', which was a term for a slave responsible for lighting up the oil lamps in front of their villas. This task continued to be kept for a special person as far as up to Middle Ages where the so-called 'link boys' escorted people from one place to another through the murky winding streets of medieval towns.

Before incandescence|incandescent lamps, gas lighting was employed in cities. The earliest lamps required that a lamplighter tour the town at dusk, lighting each of the lamps, but later designs employed ignition devices that would automatically strike the flame when the gas supply was activated. The earliest of such street lamps were built in the Caliphate of Córdoba|Arab Empire , Fielding H. Garrison , History of Medicine :
especially in Córdoba, Spain ( around 1000 AD ).

The first modern street lamps, which used kerosene, were introduced in Lviv in what was then the Austrian Empire in 1853.
The first electric street lighting employed arc lamps , initially the 'Electric candle', 'Jablotchkoff candle' or ' Yablochkov candle ' developed by the Russian Pavel Yablochkov in 1875. This was a carbon arc lamp employing alternating current, which ensured that both electrodes were consumed at equal rates. Yablochkov candles were first used to light the Grands Magasins du Louvre , Paris where 80 were deployed—improvement which was one of the reasons why Paris earned its "City of Lights" nickname. Soon after, experimental arrays of arc lamps were used to light Holborn Viaduct and the Thames Embankment in London - the first electric street lighting in Britain. More than 4,000 were in use by 1881, though by then an improved differential arc lamp had been developed by Friedrich von Hefner-Alteneck of Siemens & Halske . The United States was quick in adopting arc lighting, and by 1890 over 130,000 were in operation in the US, commonly installed in exceptionally tall moonlight tower s.

The first street in the UK to be lit by electric light was Mosley Street, in Newcastle upon Tyne. The street was lit by Joseph Swan's incandescent lamp on the 3rd February, 1879. The first in the United States, and second overall, was the Public Square road system in Cleveland, Ohio , on April 29, 1879. Wabash, Indiana holds the title of being the third electrically-lit city in the world, which took place on February 2, 1880. Four 3,000 candlepower Brush arc lamps suspended over the courthouse rendered the town square "as light as midday." Kimberley, Northern Cape|Kimberley , South Africa , was the first city in the Southern Hemisphere and in Africa to have electric street lights - first lit on 1 September 1882 . In Latin America, San Jose, Costa Rica|San Jose , Costa Rica was the first city, the system was launched on August 9, 1884, with 25 lamps powered by a hydroelectric plant. Timisoara , in present-day Romania , was the first city in mainland Europe to have electric public lighting on the 12 of November 1884. 731 lamps were used. In 1888 Tamworth, New South Wales|Tamworth , New South Wales , Australia became the first location in Australia to have electric street lighting, giving the city the title of "First City of Light".

Arc lights had two major disadvantages. First, they emit an intense and harsh light which, although useful at industrial sites like dockyards, was discomforting in ordinary city streets. Second, they are maintenance-intensive, as carbon electrodes burn away swiftly. With the development of cheap, reliable and bright incandescent light bulb s at the end of the 19th century, arc lights passed out of use for street lighting, but remained in industrial use longer.

Incandescent lamps were primarily used for street lighting until the advent of high-intensity discharge lamps. They were often operated at high-voltage Series and parallel circuits#Series circuits|series circuits . Series circuits were popular since the higher voltage in these circuits produced more light per watt consumed. Furthermore, before the invention of photoelectric controls, a single switch or clock could control all the lights in an entire district.

To avoid having the entire system go dark if a single lamp burned out, each street lamp was equipped with a device that ensured that the circuit would remain intact. Early series street lights were equipped with isolation transformers. that would allow current to pass across the transformer whether the bulb worked or not. Later the film cutout was invented. The film cutout was a small disk of insulating film that separated two contacts connected to the two wires leading to the lamp. If the lamp failed (an Open-circuit voltage|open circuit ), the current (electricity)|current through the string became zero, causing the voltage of the circuit (thousands of volts) to be imposed across the insulating film, penetrating it (see Ohm's law ). In this way, the failed lamp was bypassed and power restored to the rest of the district. The street light circuit contained an automatic voltage regulator, preventing the current from increasing as lamps burned out, preserving the life of the remaining lamps. When the failed lamp was replaced, a new piece of film was installed, once again separating the contacts in the cutout. This system was recognizable by the large porcelain insulator separating the lamp and reflector from the mounting arm. This was necessary because the two contacts in the lamp's base may have operated at several thousand volts above ground/earth.

Today, street lighting commonly uses high-intensity discharge lamp s, often HPS high pressure sodium lamp s. Such lamps provide the greatest amount of photopic illumination for the least consumption of electricity. However, when scotopic / photopic light calculations are used, it can be seen how inappropriate HPS lamps are for night lighting. White light sources have been shown to double driver peripheral vision and increase driver brake reaction time at least 25%. When S/P light calculations are used, HPS lamp performance needs to be reduced by a minimum value of 75%. This is now a standard design criteria for Australian roads.

A study comparing metal halide and high-pressure sodium lamps showed that at equal photopic light levels, a street scene illuminated at night by a metal halide lighting system was reliably seen as brighter and safer than the same scene illuminated by a high pressure sodium system.

New street lighting technologies, such as LED or induction lights , emit a white light that provides high levels of scotopic lumens allowing street lights with lower wattages and lower photopic lumens to replace existing street lights. However, there have been no formal specifications written around Photopic/Scotopic adjustments for different types of light sources, causing many municipalities and street departments to hold back on implementation of these new technologies until the standards are updated.

Photovoltaic-powered LED luminaire s are gaining wider acceptance. Preliminary field tests show that some LED luminaires are energy-efficient and perform well in testing environments.

In 2007, the Civil Twilight Collective created a variant of the conventional LED streetlight, namely the Lunar-resonant streetlight . These lights increase or decrease the intensity of the streetlight according to the moon|lunar light. This streetlight design thus reduces energy consumption as well as light pollution.

Measurement

Two very similar measurement systems were created to bridge the scotopic and photopic luminous efficiency functions,Rea M, Bullough J, Freyssinier-Nova J, Bierman A. A proposed unified system of photometry. Lighting Research & Technology 2004; 36(2):85.Goodman T, Forbes A, Walkey H, Eloholma M, Halonen L, Alferdinck J, Freiding A, Bodrogi P, Varady G, Szalmas A. Mesopic visual efficiency IV: a model with relevance to nighttime driving and other applications. Lighting Research & Technology 2007; 39(4):365. creating a Unified System of Photometry.Akashi, Y., M. S. Rea and J. D. Bullough. 2007. Driver decision making in response to peripheral moving targets under mesopic light levels. Lighting Research and Technology 39(1): 53-67. This new measurement has been well-received because the reliance on V(?) alone for characterizing night-time light illuminations requires more electric energy. The cost-savings potential of using a new way to measure mesopic lighting scenarios is tremendous.Rea MS, Radetsky LC, Bullough JD. Toward a Model of Outdoor Lighting Scene Brightness. Lighting Research & Technology 2010; in press.

Outdoor Site-Lighting Performance (OSP) is a method for predicting and measuring three different aspects of light pollution: glow, trespass and glare. Using this method, lighting specifiers can quantify the performance of existing and planned lighting designs and applications to minimize excessive or obtrusive light leaving the boundaries of a property.

Advantages

Major advantages of street lighting includes: prevention of accidents and increase in safety.Rea, M. S., J. D. Bullough, C. R. Fay, J. A. Brons, J. Van Derlofske and E. T. Donnell. 2009. Review of the Safety Benefits and Other Effects of Roadway Lighting . Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board. Studies have shown that darkness results in a large number of crashes and fatalities, especially those involving pedestrians; pedestrian fatalities are 3 to 6.75 times more likely in the dark than in daylight.Sullivan, J.M., and Flannigan, M.J. (1999) Assessing the Potential Benefit of Adaptive Headlighting Using Crash Databases, Report No. UMTRI-99-21. University of Michigan
Transportation Research Institute. Street lighting has been found to reduce pedestrian crashes by approximately 50%.Schwab, R.N., Walton, N.E., Mounce, J.M., and Rosenbaum, M.J. (1982) Synthesis of Safety Research Related to Traffic Control and Roadway Elements-Volume 2, Chapter 12: Highway Lighting. Report No. FHWA-TS-82-233. Federal Highway Administration.Elvik, R. (1995) “Meta-Analysis of Evaluations of Public Lighting as Accident Countermeasure.” Transportation Research Record 1485, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., pp. 112-123.Commission Internationale de l'Éclairage. (1992) Road Lighting as an Accident Countermeasure. CIE No. 93. Vienna, Austria: Commission Internationale de l'Éclairage.

Furthermore, lighted intersections and highway interchanges tend to have fewer crashes than unlighted intersections and interchanges.Box, P.C. (1970) Relationship Between Illumination and Freeway Accidents. IERI Project 85-67 Illuminating Research Institute, New York April, pp. 1-83.

Towns, cities, and villages use the unique locations provided by light poles to hang decorative or commemorative banners.

Many communities in the U.S. use light poles as a tool for fund raising via light pole banner sponsorship programs first designed by a U.S. based light pole banner manufacturer.

Disadvantages

The major criticisms of street lighting are that it can actually cause accidents if misused, and cause light pollution .

Dangers

There are two optical phenomena that need to be recognized in street light installations.

The loss of night vision because of the accommodation reflex of drivers' eyes is the greatest danger. As drivers emerge from an unlighted area into a pool of light from a street light their pupil s quickly constrict to adjust to the brighter light, but as they leave the pool of light the dilation of their pupils to adjust to the dimmer light is much slower, so they are driving with impaired vision. As a person gets older the eye's recovery speed gets slower, so driving time and distance under impaired vision increases.

Oncoming headlights are more visible against a black background than a grey one. The contrast creates greater awareness of the oncoming vehicle.

Stray voltage is also a concern in many cities. Stray voltage can accidentally electrify light poles and has the potential to injure or kill anyone who comes into contact with the pole. Some cities have employed the Electrified Cover Safeguard(TM) technology which sounds an alarm and flashes a light, to warn the public, when a pole becomes dangerously electrified.

There are also physical dangers. Street light stanchions (poles) pose a collision risk to motorists and pedestrians, particularly those affected by poor eyesight or under the influence of alcohol. This can be reduced by designing them to break away when hit ( frangible or collapsible supports), protecting them by guardrails, or marking the lower portions to increase their visibility. High winds or accumulated Fatigue (material)|metal fatigue also occasionally topple street lights.

Light pollution

In urban areas light pollution can hide the stars and interfere with astronomy and the migration of many bird species. In settings near astronomical telescope s and observatory|observatories , low pressure sodium lamps may be used. These lamps are advantageous over other lamps such as Mercury lamp|mercury and metal halide lamp s because low pressure sodium lamps emit lower intensity, monochromatic light. Observatories can filter the sodium wavelength out of their observations and virtually eliminate the interference from nearby urban lighting. Full cutoff streetlights also reduce light pollution by reducing the amount of light that is directed at the sky which also improves the luminous efficiency of the light.

Purpose

There are three distinct main uses of street lights, each requiring different types of lights and placement. Misuse of the different types of lights can make the situation worse by compromising visibility or safety.

Beacon lights

A modest steady light at the intersection of two roads is an aid to navigation because it helps a driver see the location of a side road as they come closer to it and they can adjust their braking and know exactly where to turn if they intend to leave the main road or see vehicles or pedestrians. A beacon light's function is to say "here I am" and even a dim light provides enough contrast against the dark night to serve the purpose. To prevent the dangers caused by a car driving through a pool of light, a beacon light must never shine onto the main road, and not brightly onto the side road. In residential areas, this is usually the only appropriate lighting, and it has the bonus side effect of providing spill lighting onto any sidewalk there for the benefit of pedestrians. On Interstate highways this purpose is commonly served by placing reflectors at the sides of the road.

Roadway lights

Street lights are not normally intended to illuminate the driving route ( headlight s are preferred), but to reveal signs and hazards outside of the headlights' beam. Because of the dangers discussed above, roadway lights are properly used sparingly and only when a particular situation justifies increasing the risk. This usually involves an intersection with several turning movements and much signage, situations where drivers must take in much information quickly that is not in the headlights' beam. In these situations (A freeway junction or exit ramp) the intersection may be lit so that drivers can quickly see all hazards, and a well designed plan will have gradually increasing lighting for approximately a quarter of a minute before the intersection and gradually decreasing lighting after it. The main stretches of highways remain unlighted to preserve the driver's night vision and increase the visibility of oncoming headlights. If there is a sharp curve where headlights will not illuminate the road, a light on the outside of the curve is often justified.

If it is desired to light a roadway (perhaps due to heavy and fast multi-lane traffic), to avoid the dangers of casual placement of street lights it should not be lit intermittently, as this requires repeated eye readjustment which implies asthenopia|eyestrain and temporary blindness when entering and leaving light pools. In this case the system is designed to eliminate the need for headlights. This is usually achieved with bright lights placed on high poles at close regular intervals so that there is consistent light along the route. The lighting goes from curb to curb.

For more information, see the lighting section of Pedestrian crossing|"Pedestrian Crossings" article.

Security lighting

Security lighting is similar to high-intensity lighting on a busy major street, with no pools of light and dark, but with the lighted area extending onto people's property, at least to their front door. This requires a different type of fixture and lens (optics)|lens . The increased glare experienced by drivers going through the area might be considered a trade-off for increased security. This is what would normally be used along sidewalks in dense areas of cities.

Street light control systems

A number of street light control systems have been developed to control and reduce energy consumption of a town's public lighting system. These range from controlling a circuit of street lights and/or individual lights with specific ballasts and network operating protocols. These may include sending and receiving instructions via separate data networks,at high frequency over the top of the low voltage supply or wireless. Various protocols have been developed as well as compatible hardware for most types of lighting.

Image-based streetlight control

A number of companies are now manufacturing intelligent streetlights that adjust light output based on usage and occupancy, i.e. automating classification of pedestrian versus cyclist, versus automotive, sensing also velocity of movement and illuminating a certain number of streetlights ahead and fewer behind, depending on velocity of movement. Also the lights adjust depending on road conditions, e.g. snow (more reflectance therefore reduced light need).

Manufacturers include:

Philips (Lumimotion product);
Tvilight;
Illuminaging Concepts (Intellistreets product);

Maintenance

Street lighting systems require ongoing maintenance, which can be classified as either reactive or preventative. Reactive maintenance is a direct response to a lighting failure, such as replacing a discharge lamp after it has failed, or replacing an entire lighting unit after it has been hit by a vehicle. Preventative maintenance is scheduled replacement of lighting components, for example replacing all of the discharge lamps in an area of the city when they have reached 85% of their expected life. In the United Kingdom the Roads Liaison Group has issued a recommending specific reactive and preventative maintenance procedures.

Main manufacturers

;Australia

General Electric Company plc|GEC ( General Electric )

Osram Sylvania

Philips

Rexel

Zumtobel Lighting Group|Thorn Lighting

Westinghouse Electric Corporation (1998)|Westinghouse

;Americas

American Electric Lighting (formerly ITT Corporation|ITT , later Thomas & Betts )

Cooper Lighting division of Cooper Industries

General Electric , USA.

Osram Sylvania

Westinghouse Lighting Corporation (formerly Angelo Brothers) division of the new Westinghouse Electric (1998)|Westinghouse Electric

;Europe

Osram , Germany.

Philips , the Netherlands.

Siemens , Germany.

Svetlina AD , Bulgaria.

Tungsram , Hungary

, Italy.

;United Kingdom

General Electric Company plc|GEC

Philips

Thorn Lighting

;Asia

Panasonic Corporation|Matsushita Electric Industrial Co. , Japan

Sanyo , Japan

Copyright Citations

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